Essay --

Have you every wondered why it has become easier for citizens to own a gun. Weather its legally or lawlessly many people own guns. In the past days and years there shake been many news reports involving guns. The amount of firearms that argon available have taken a major impact on the murder rate in the United States. In many different places there have been dope killings including, court rooms, movie theaters, schools, airports, and etc. The amount killings from guns are unbearable. People today can fearful to leave their house due to guns and their experience with it. It should not be acceptable for civilians to live in fear because one person has access to a firearm. on that point are some people that can make the note that having stricter gun laws wont make a difference. It has been said that guns are not what kill people, and that people kill people. In some cases this argument maybe rightful(a) but I dont believe that this argument is completely valid to the reason peo ple die from guns. In this essay, I will be explaining why gun control should be stricter.I think its safe to say that America has grown to have a love for guns. In 2012 the downhearted arms survey determined that the United States has 88.9 firearms for every on hundred people in America. Thats more(prenominal) Mexico, Yemen, and Pakistan combined. The U.S. has the highest gun ownership in the world. There are way to many armed civilians in this country. Anti-gun-control activists argue that if guns were banned or regulated seve hope only In our United States Constitution, the second amendment states, A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed. Although the second amendment is only... ...that are purchased from private sellers do not require background. Under the Gun control act of 1968, the federal law states that private sellers as anyone who sold no more than four firearms per year. But in1986, the Firearm Owners Protection Act lifted that restriction and loosely defined private sellers as people who do not rely on gun sales as the principal way of obtaining their livelihood. Toady many private sellers sell a large amount of all kinds of guns. Because these sellers contain to be hobbyist, they are exempt from the law requirements that follow as a licensed firearm retailer. Some states have taken further action to ill the law by requiring background checks at gun shows for any type of transaction. States like Colorado And Connecticut, most recently made mandatory background checks on all gun purchases, including purchases over internet.

Sunspots Essay -- Essays Papers

fair weatherspotsOur Sun continuously converts hydrogen into helium and with this process it provides the essentials for life processes. In doing this it controls our climate, provides light, raises tides, and drives the food chain (Schaefer 34). Our Sun also has influenced many beliefs now and in the past. History has documented Sun worshipping religions while many current societies use solar calendars (Schaefer 34). Because the Sun is so influential, imperfections of the Sun, such as sunspots volition continue to impact life on Earth. The discovery of sunspots is correlated with the invention of the telescope in 1608, although there are earlier recordings of sunspot like activity from China (Schaefer 35). Galileo was one of the astronomers who decided to publish his findings and use sunspots in one of his theories of Chief World Systems (Schaefer 35-6). like a shot many patterns including real estate sales to fluctuations in the climate have been attributed to the cycle of sunspots. These fluctuations may be an explanation of the decline of Sun worship in India due the increased sunspot activity during the time of the Medieval Maximum. Throughtout history these fluctuations have been omens (e.g. a slave revolutionists incited a riot when he interpreted the state of affairs of a large black area on the Sun as the black taking over the white) (Schaefer 38). There are also modern examples of solar fluctuations affecting the Earth like the delayed launch of the Hubble Telescope (Schaefer 38) and the disruptions in electrical and radio technology during solar flares due to increased activity of sunspots at the last solar maximum in 1989.Sunspots are the most apparent features on the Suns surface or photosphere. Anyone could use a trickle such as a welders helmet to observe groups of sunspots. A sunspot consists of two regions, the umbra and the penumbra. The temperature of the umbra can be as low as 4,000 K and the penumbra that surrounds the umbr a has a temperature of just about 5,500 K which contrasts to the photospheric temperature of 6,000 K. The difference in temperatures makes the sunspots appear dark against the brightness of thephotosphere (Nicolson 123). A sunspots average size is comparable with the Earth. They form in regions of concentrated magnetic fields. These fields hamper the flow of energyn to the affected area. The magnetic fields on... .... This project will hopefully enable scientists to learn more about sunspots andother properties of the Sun.Understanding more about sunspots, their cycle, radiation, and magnetic properties will facilitate scientists to unlock the mysterious workings of the Sun. With todays technology this understanding will come more quickly. Knowledge of sunspots may lead us to be able to predict when solar activity could affect the Earth like it did during the solar max in 1989. Information like this could eventually allow us to be able to protect ourselves from solar rad iation.Works CitedAnalyzing Variation in the Suns Radiation. USA Today. 26 2637 (1998) 11-12.Nehru, K.V.K. Glimpses Into the Structure of the SunPart 1 The Nature of Stellar Matter. March 22, 2001. .Nehru, K.V.K. Glimpses Into the Structure of the SunPart 2 The Solar Interior and the Sunspot. March 22, 2001. Nicolson, Iain. Unfolding Our Universe. New York Cambridge University Press, 1999. 123-4 276+Philips, Tony Dr. The Sun Does a Flip. SpaceScience. Feb. 15, 2001. March 19, 2001. .Schaefer, Bradley E. Sunspots that changed the World. Sky & Telescope. 93.4 (1997). 34-38.

Romeo and Juliet Essay example -- Literary Analysis, Shakespeare

It is deeply ironic that love, which is regarded so highly in our society, is a very general term without well-defined specific terms. For instance, in that location are not even explicit terms to describe the specific types of love one feels between, say, a family member, and a romantic interest, which are clearly pellucid and almost completely universal. We naturally seek a universal definition of love, a complete truth. I daresay that I doubt one exists. This ambiguity of oral communication has undoubtedly caused more conflict history has no shortage of examples. Further irony arises in that despite being central to life, both physically and mentally, we til now seem to struggle greatly with the concept mathematics has much better utilized its ubiquity among the ancient civilizations. As a corollary, love is one of, if not the, most common theme in literature and the other arts. Here, we shall examine a specific example. In Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare i llustrates romantic love, infatuation, and familial love, and how all trine refute each other by promoting different courses of action.Firstly, Shakespeare depicts infatuation in his play. Note that infatuation is distinct from romantic love because infatuation lacks certain qualities, much(prenominal) as a conscious will to maintain said love. We refer to Romeos feelings for Rosaline before the party. Romeo says She is too fair, too wise, wisely too fair,To merit mirth by making me despair.She hath forsworn to love, and in that vowDo I live dead that live to tell it now. (1.1.221-5)From this quote, Romeos feelings of Rosaline are extremely apparent Romeo loves Rosaline, in common terms. However, this affection does not contain the usual elements th... ...3-4). There is no denying that this decision is obviously far from optimal. And hence the point is proved- the two types of love apply hence produced a much more counterintuitive result than expected. Indeed, this con tradiction is one of the central themes of this work.In Romeo and Juliet, there exist multiple types of love, and they all contradict each other by motivating characters to perform actions that they would otherwise not perform under the influence of one alone. In particular, Shakespeare illustrates both infatuation and familial love. Furthermore, all three types of love contradict each other- romantic love permits instantaneous destruction of infatuation. Similarly, familial love and romantic love, when both present, cause much agony to Juliet. Indeed, this work well demonstrates why love can be so powerful and at the same time so disastrous.

The Cultural Invasion of Kenya Essay -- American Culture Traditions Es

The Cultural Invasion of Kenya A screeching yell ripped by dint of the house that Wednesday evening, Ahhhhh, were being invaded. My mother rushed into the living room. I pointed to the flickering television screen. Look, I whispered in disbelief. A few seconds of silence followed. in that location they were, the words I never thought would appear on our 29 inch Sony screen Sizzlin Hot Country. The appearance of American country symphony on the Kenyan airwaves was the latest sign that American conclusion had penetrated the borders of my country. The airing of Garth Brooks and Dolly Parton on the local television station is not the besides evidence of the rapid spread of American culture in Kenya. One look at a large portion of its youth and this cultural onslaught will become apparent. Baggy pants, Nike, pop music and malls, symbols of American youth culture can now be associated with the Kenyan teenagers. The Nike phenomenon hit Kenya several historic period ago. My class mates in primary school were obsessed with the American brand name that had rocked the global shoe industry. Their school desks had the Nike name and logo painted on in every color imaginable. Not being able to afford some of the merchandise, many resorted to drawing the logo on bags, clothes, shoes and other visible possessions. routine up to a class party with the trademark tick appearing on ones footwear simply made one the center of attention. My favorite duo of shoes, I have to admit, were a pair of black Nikes which raised many brows and turned just as many heads. Secondary school had its fair fortune of examples of the cultural invasion. In most schools in Kenya, students dress in uniforms. For example, in my school it was compulsory to wear a white shirt, gra... ...ols of success. While hip skim and baggy pants may not epitomize American success, Kenyan youth adopt this aspect of American culture perhaps because of the common grow and racial background the ma jority share with African Americans. Wearing Nike shoes or sagging ones pants may seem to be meaningless gestures. However, have on shoes that many popular, rich American sporting icons don or sagging pants like the famous hip hop artists makes one unalike from the rest. It allows one to adopt an American identity, one defined by success and importance. While some would argue that such a spread of American culture would be beneficial because it would, in a sense, create a global village, I think this cultural invasion creates more harm than good. It would result in the demise of local cultures and languages. And this is certainly not a good thing.

The Coliseum :: essays papers

Architecture of the ancient Roman Empire is considered unmatchable of the nigh impressive of all time. The city of Rome once was home to more than one million residents in the early centuries. The Romans had a fine selection of expression monuments in the city of Rome including the forums for civic services, temples of worship, and amphitheaters for recreation and play. The Romans made great use and pioneered great architecture mechanisms including arches, columns, and even mechanical elements in pulleys and early elevators. However, when one tends to think of great structures, one building stands out in Rome. This building is the Flavian Amphitheatre, or better Known as the Coliseum. The Coliseum is the greatest standing building of Rome, and one of the most recognized worldwide architectural achievements to this day. The amphitheater is a type of architecture that was without Greek precedents. This makes sense since its primary purpose was to hold gladitiator fights and condem nable shows which were banned in Athens at the time. Such events held in Roman amphitheaters were horseracing, gymnastics, mock cavalry battles, footraces, prizefighting, wrestling, fights between animals, between men, animals and men, and even naumachiae, or mock sea battles. The great building although fitting and plain in design to its surroundings of Rome still stood out due to its sheer monstrosity and oval shape. Although the rate viewed today is still a marvel, back in the days of its prime it was a spectacular site that would be difficult to apprehend with only words.The emperor moth given credit for the idea of the coliseum was Vespasian. Building commenced around 72 AD. But Vespian would not live to see his greatest accomplishment finished. Titus, Vespasians son, completed his fathers ambitiousness around 80 AD. The dedication of the Coliseum was a lavish gladiator show that lasted for exactly one hundred days in which over nightspot thousand animals were killed. A typ ical day at the Coliseum show usually started with a bloodless comic relief battle, often times with dwarfs, women, or cripples battling with wooden objects. The gladiator fights were the most popular and prominent fights. These featured two highly trained men battling for courage, strength, and dignity. They would often rather take a bollocks up and stand strong than whimper and run in defense. It is written that famous women would even leave their husbands for famous gladiators, which were known to be very scarred and ugly by Roman standards.

Social and Legal Definitions of Slavery Narrative of the Life of Freder

Mr. Covey seemed now to think he had me, and could do what he pleased still if at this moment -- from whence came the spirit I dont know -- I resolved to fight and, suiting my action to the resolution, I seized Covey hard by the throat and as I did so, I rose. (Douglass 112, chapt. 10)In Chapter 10 of Frederick Douglass Narrative of the Life of... an American Slave, Douglass describes an important incident in which he forces backward the stock(a) master-slave hierarchy of beating privileges against his temporary master, Mr. Covey. The victory proves for Douglass a remarkable source of renewed yearning for freedom and of self-confidence as he rose physically, rest up to fight, he rose in spirit. Covey did not have Douglass in the sense of either fighting or ownership, and could not do what he pleased. The description of the internal and external results of the fight displays a clear degree of signification in order to convey to the reader the highly personal reputation of the triumph--signifying being described by Roger D. Abrahams as a technique of indirect argument or persuasion and a language of implication (Gates 54). Douglass explains, He only can understand the deep satisfaction which I experienced, who has himself repelled by force the bloody arm of slavery (113, chapt. 10). The overt statement describes a unique sapidity arisen from relatively unique circumstances but the implication tacked on to the statement might be phrased as Such a one is most plausibly not you, the reader. What is the use of constructing this implied distance between the narrator and the reader? The fact that Douglass has taken up writing as an articulate method of communication seems in many ways to indicate an adoption of the... ...had passed forever when I could be a slave in fact (113, chapt. 10).This victory, combined with the achievement of literacy and other factors, such(prenominal) as the will to escape and attempt to teach others, point to a sense of cozy, fac tual freedom which develops while Douglass is still a slave tally to the law and in the public eye. Just as the Narrative is a personal story set within a framework of social relevance, the attempt for freedom is personal before it is physical and external. In spirit and sense of self Douglass becomes free while still a slave, even if that freedom makes his more tangible bonds all the more painful. Because he fought for this freedom long before being ranked among free Northerners, Douglass maintains, in his narrative for the white abolitionist movement, an inner independence of social and legal definitions of slavery and freedom.

Mr Makedama

Macadam case analysis by UCT group of MBA students Company overview Macadams Bakery Supplies Holdings (Macadams) is a manufacturer of oven and other appliances for the cook industry. Their financial statements for 1996 utmostlight a very strong year. Turnover grew by 59% to R125. 3m and profit increased by 81%. An acquisition of Livanos Brothers (February 1996) took place in response to the increased demand in the local market as well as an expansion of market base in foreign markets. depreciation of the Rand against other major currencies also supported export sales.The company has entered a phase of rapid expansion, expanding its main factory in Cape Town by 50%. As well as opening new sales and distribution centers in Durban and Bloemfontein in the current year, with further plans to expand in to Zimbabwe in the following year. An analysis of the companys financial statements will determine whether the company is in a position to leverage its expansion, or whether it is perhaps festering too rapidly. Detailed Financial Analysis Profit talent Macadams experienced a healthy turnover, which increased by 58. 5% between 1995 and 1996.This abnormally high harvest-feast in turnover was due to a surging demand for their products, favorable exchange sites and acquisitions of arts, which complimented their current product portfolio. They further expanded the operating(a) network to service the growing market they were operating in. It should however be noned that a growth rate of 58. 5% per annum is not sustainable or realistic, and although Macadams has extended their products and services to global markets through joint ventures and M&As, there would be a point where there growth would become organic, or at least in line with industry standards..Although operating and net margins have improved since 1995, the net margin remains low at 8. 5%. This indicates that despite dramatic increases in revenue, Macadams have only marginally improved the ability to gener ate profits. Liquidity The income statement displays a healthy growth by Macadams however the cash flow statement shows a contradictory picture. Macadams have a serious liquidity business. Cash generated from ope symmetryns is significantly down by 87% in comparison to the prior financial year.The operation did not generate sufficient cash to fund its interest, taxation or dividends payments for the year. As a result these payments were do through borrowed funds. Working capital movements in 1996 adversely impacted cash generated by operating activities, with a noticeable increase in working capital of 595% from R2. 7million to R19million. This is due to an increase in inventory of 66%, to meet perceived consumer demand, which was funded by cash resources. There has also been an increase in debtors of 129%, due to increased credit sales.Further more than, creditors increased by 87%, which only partially offset the increase in current assets. This is a scenario of a business expand ing too rapidly. There are high levels of sales and gross profits, but a serious cash flow problem created by inventory build-up, and high level of receivables. Cash is now tied up in stock and debtors. The lack of available cash in the business could impact Masadamss ability to service their short-term liabilities. Efficiency Macadams have become less efficient in 1996. The accounts receivables increased by 129% in 1996.Reviewing the debtors collection head we can clearly see the longer collection period (53 days in 95 to 77 days in 96) could be indicative of more relaxed credit terms, which could be MBSs strategy to attract more sales and increase turnover. This strategy does however create a risk of bad debt and creates a problem for operational cash flow, as it currently is experiencing. It is also noted on the financial statements that Debtors have been used by ceded to the banks as security for facilities granted. ceding of debt means that the banks do not have faith in Maca dams ability to repay its debt.Leverage The debt ratio has increased by 9% this was for the backup of the expansion. The additional funding taken out, mortgage loan is secured by land and buildings, and the movable assets secure the installment sale agreement. This is risky as it means should Macadams blend to make payment on either of these loans, they would lose R4. 3 million of its movable and immovable assets. Incurring debt to expand their operations and grow the business is not a bad thing, and is necessary. Despite the massive increase in debt, the interest cover ratio is still healthy.This however, is not a cash based ratio and gives us no indication as to whether the company is able to make its cash payments to service the increased quantities of debt. For this reason the concern would be raised with revere to Macadams ability to service their debt. This concern is specific to their lack of liquid funds available in the business. DuPont analysis With the aid of the DuPon t model of analysis the following observations were made Macadams ROE, of 30. 63%, has decreased by 1. 4% during the financial year under review.However it could be seen as a good return on equity, as it is 10% higher than the prime interest rates at the time (20. 25% Nov 1996). Macadams have become less efficient in using its assets to generate profits. Its susceptibility ratios demonstrate a drop from 2. 37 to 1. 90 however this could be explained by the timing of the acquisition of assets. Vacant land was acquired in September 1996, ripe three months before the December year-end, and new premises opened in Bloemfontein in November 1996. These assets would not yet have had the opportunity to generate the profits that may be expected in future.Macadams profitability has increased marginally since the previous year however their net margin is still a low 8. 50%. Macadams are not using its revenue to generate sufficient profits. In terms of leverage, the ratio has increased margin ally from the 1995 financial year, to 1. 89, in line with change magnitude debt in terms of both long-term and short-term borrowing. Conclusion Macadams are a promising business which is currently generating high sales volumes and generous profits. The problem with the business is the following Their inability to translate their sales into cash. The drive and efforts to grow the business at a rate which is not practical to their available resources and symmetricalness sheet this results in the following oAccrual of high volumes of long-term and short-term debt. oHigh inventory levels as a result of their steep growth plan which they have employ (cash on the shelves/in the store room) oIncreased overheads to operate newly established network offices to service the market. If Macadams operates their business as they are, they will eventually grow their business into bankruptcy.As a turn around strategy, I would implement the following initiatives to maximize the output of the busin ess and create a more sustainable business model. Slow-down the growth rate which Macadams is currently experiencing. Limit its debt, i. e. not take out any further debt. Analyze the current business operations to improve operational efficiency, thus lessen COS of sale per unit sold, and inevitably increasing gross, net and operating profit margins. Improve sales efforts to reduce inventory levels, and simultaneously increasing boilersuit sales. Macadams should also review their current costs and look for cost saving initiatives. This will ensure that the revenue increase is matched with a similar increase in profits. Ensure the business is more liquid by having more operational cash and cash in the business this can be achieved by change magnitude the debtors collection period from 77 days to 30 days, and increasing their creditors period to 45 days. If I had shares in Macadams I would bag on to them if the above initiatives were implemented, as this would ultimately result in a n increased EPS.

Job Analysis Essay

The reason for note analysis is to study and evaluate the things that a job is supposed to involve. This is describing exactly what skills are conveyed to perform the job, and what the exact qualifications are to fill the survey. Job analysis is a method needed when the employee need to know the precise function. An example would be that an employees duties should be clearly stated. So, a jobs analyst is to observe the employee at his or her current duties. This is overly stabilising in deciding what the requirements are to perform this job more effectively.As sound jobs continue to change so a job analyst n should watch for any changes so that things are kept put o date. The job analyst should therefore be familiar with the job a sound as the position. The job analysis will lead directly to development of numerous other significant workers (tools) job requirements, job assessment as salubrious as job performance criteria (Spector, 2008). Today families are shattered, languag e barriers are high, violence is a standard, and then education which does not get to high a priority.Counselors typically deal with these types of students that have tangible needs, emotional troubles, and behavioral issues. Counselors have an ear for listening shoulders to cry on and a firm facilitator for regulations are what a educate exponent should use. Before becoming a school proponentor a person needs to become part of the educational system as a teacher. There are 10 principles that significant according to the Interstate New Teachers Assessment and Support Consortium when reviewing candidates for the position of school counselor.These principle exist of learning styles and diversity, motivation and behavior, interpersonal relationships, communication and knowledge, instructional strategies and problem solving, planning for instruction, making content meaningful, assessment, child development and learning theory, and planning for instruction INTASC, 2008). numerous ed ucators, mainly at an elementary age level, have a change classroom with minimal resources in regards to discipline. It is important to keep a firm reign of authority so as to support appropriate learning environment.Behavior is a test demonstrated by students to push more each day in bold new ways. Since these ideas have been said a prospective counselor in education needs to discern and recognize the benefits as wholesome as the risks that are involved. The risks implicated the issues with reluctant and non participating family members with his or her childs plan for behavioral concerns. The benefits are clear, when a school s filled with enjoyable, interactive programs t is pursued by a renewed sense of elation to from the students.Position Analysis Questionnaire Method The importance of job analysis in education is imperative. A systematic evaluation of a position for a school counselor aids in the supervised development of quality job performance. An Industrial and Organizat ional Psychologist employ wide range of techniques to perform accurate analysis on all jobs. An example would be functional job analysis, job inventories, job components inventory, and position analysis questionnaire.School counselors at the elementary level are most commonly given the positions analysis questionnaire. Job position for school counselors reflects services, codes, and programs this s found n Chapter 33 of the Texas Educational Code, Title 2 of the Texas Education Agency, or TEA. The basis of employment positions are required skills and the education a person needs to have to apply for a job. Counselors in Texas, has to have a degree n a Masters program with an credited University alike have an official teaching certificate from Texas.In addition a people are required to teach a classroom setting for ii years or more before an application for the counselors security will be processed. A good score on certification examinations and a national finger print background check will then allow for the person to become an accredited applicant for school counselor (TEA, 2011). In 1996 across the state of Texas the Texas Evaluation Model for Professional School Counselors (TEMPSCO) was implemented. This serves as a form of regular analysis of an all school counselors.It is also pertinent for counselors teaching grades Pre-School -12th grades. It is documented on The School Guidance and Counseling Job Evaluation Form. Eight Domains of Job Performance There are a multitude of sub categories to the eight domains that are observed in the job analysis. This includes certain standards of personal behavior and job performance of the person in this position. totally of the standards are provided by the Texas Education Code, Title 2, Public Education, Subtitle F. Curriculum, Programs, and Services Service Programs nd Extracurricular Activities Subchapter A School Counselors and Counseling Programs (TEA, 2011). This requires practicing counselors to assess, arra nge and treat developmental programs (including resources in a program and paraprofessionals) designed for other teachers, parents as well as students. Developmental programs need to concentrate on developing last making, interpersonal effectiveness, self confidence, goal setting, cross cultural effectiveness, planning, communication, responsible behavior, and motivation to achieve (TEA, 2011).Also a school counselor is directed to oversee, review as well as plan guidance programs for students that have developmental needs. These needs are made up of physical disabilities, behavioral sicknesss, as well as learning disabilities. The addition of students who have disabilities is the essential goal for the TEA. Seen throughout the school district are the continued encouragement of other students and more importantly the parents of the child all through the domain of program management and guidance requirements.A school counselor is suppose to be able to openly counsel the students n a time of emergency, suffering, and other non specified issues. School counselors need to therefore consider many variables and use core concepts that are use n the field of Psychology. TEA advises the counselors to be current on theories and techniques that are believed to be satisfactory to achieve and establish individual, learning, community and occupational development for the students.There is a high standard for professionalism and compliance that counselors are held to. School counselors have to reflect proper moral, ethical, as well as lawful standards of behavior. Indecent use of communications or language and violation of school rules will not be allowed during any time for anyone that is n the educational system. This person is not only an support for the school, the students and parents, as well as the entire field of psychology.Reliability and Validity Reality and validity in regards to the job analysis of school counselor has importantly improving in comparison to earlier performed evaluations. The text materials and research carefully provides insight into each category and the requirement for each job position for only review and research. A list of certifications and prerequisite procedures are also listed.Evaluating eight levels of job requirements are counseling, student assessment, professional standards, rogram management, coordination, guidance, and consulting (TEA, 2011). There are several columns or questions the evaluator has to answer. This is done with a score of 1-5 with each of the eight domain levels. The equivalent of the rating scale reflects the following 1=unsatisfactory, 2=below, 3= meets the standards. 4=exceeds the standards, and 5= clearly outstanding. If the criteria or standard doesnt pertain to the applicant during the evaluation NA will also apply.There is also a push through on the evaluation to be left blank intentionally that will be used by the evaluator that includes his or her personal information, notes te lling strengths special comments that he or she has for the personnel, as well as areas that need to be worked on. Conclusion Depression, addictions, bipolar disorder, stress, divorce, anger, post traumatic stress disorder, autism, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder are just a few of the many factors and disorders that a person would receive advice, therapy, and counseling.These disorders and factors affect numerous students and families alike. Therefore there is a need for ethical, compassionate, and capable school counselors are essential. There is also a dramatic difference in the salary based scale and the worth of a job position for school counselors and a professional licensed counselor n private practice. However, the wish to better childrens lives through forms of developmental programs, advocacy for success and psychotherapy, overbalance any financial gain.

Life of Hitler Essay

The book, written by Alan Bullock deals with the whole disembodied spirit of Hitler, from his unknown early stages through his progress to supreme arrogant indicant and then his final weakening and suicide in the bunker as Russian shells fell around him. The fountain divides the story into three chief(prenominal)(prenominal) sections. The first covers with Hitlers early life, his ascending to party leader in the years following the First World War, and his gaining of the Chancellorship in 1933.The second part deals how he consolidated his position and extended his power once he was in office. The third and final part is regarding his actions in the Second World War. Hitler tagtled in the army, speaking his mind in opposition to the Jews and Communists greatly to the consent of his seniors. In 1919 Hitler was invited to a meeting of the Deutsche Arbeiter Partei or DAP, the German Workers Party which really embraced of only a few dozen constituents. During this meeting, a spoke sperson called for the unification of Austria and Germany.Right away, Hitler shouted, refusing the very thought of a union with the non-Germanic areas of Austria but echoed the words of his educator that all Germans everyplace should merge to form a single nation. He received an invitation to join the party the next day. Hitler was not excited about this offer he had seek to organize his own party and not join one as incompetent as the DAP. However he was still fascinated to the faction and by and by a couple of days of careful discussion he accepted.Number 555, a tot up which sounded remarkable unless you knew that the partys numbering system started with 500, this was the number of Adolf Hitler as a DAP member. This undersized group of malcontents- rapidly to be known as the Nazis-had established its head, the nonconformist and former tramp that would lead them to supreme power and their country to ultimate destruction. Even though there is a surprising disparity between the da rkness of Hitlers origins and the unquestionable power he afterward on acquired, it is noteworthy how accurately his later thoughts and behavior were predicted in his early years.Certainly, as he himself mentioned, his examinations barely distorted at all from those he set forth in Mein Kampf. More than once he expressed quite openly what he projected to do as soon as he acquired power the error his generations made was not to take him sincerely. The German politicians thought that they could make use of Hitler to broaden their own ends, but it was the other way around, it was Hitler who apply them. It is complicated to stay away from a feeling of grudging respect for the skill with which he deceived and controlled them.Although Hitler was absolutely deceitful, trusting no one and willing to mislead, betray, eliminate, and do anything else that was desirable to achieve his ends, it is notable how cautious he was to circumvent open irregularity. When it appeared at one point likely that the Nazi party would be started of its aims, a number of his associates sought to stage a coup, but Hitler declined to do so. And in reality he did eventually become Chancellor legitimately, although, as soon as in power, he rapidly maneuvered himself into a position where he could do whatever he wanted without any kind of constitutional limitation.The total neediness of hesitation that characterized Hitlers advance to power continued to be apparent once he became Chancellor. His conduct on the world stage was basically a larger version of his earlier pretense, deception, and eagerness to use violence when it appeared likely to give. He had an insightful idea of the failing of others, playing on Joseph Chamberlains appetency to avoid confrontation with the same skill he had used to deceive his opponents on his way to power.And, at least primarily, he sustained to examine the forms of equity in international relationships his takeover of Austria was, in appearance, by invitat ion rather than by invasion. One of the most significant data about Hitler is the capacity he evidently obsessed to govern people. His appearance was unremarkable and his mind ordinary and vulgar, still he was capable to enforce his will on almost everyone around him, that is, the main chuck oution seems to have been the Russian foreign minister Molotov.Bullock makes a comment on this power but was not able to explain it except by stating that Hitlers gaze had a strange hypnotic character. This, nonetheless, would only have been successful at close quarters his dominance of large everyday meetings must have been by reason of something else. Hitler himself explained what this depended on not logical argument but feeling, emotion. It is not objectivity, which is a feckless attitude, but a refractory will, back up by power where necessary. The author is good on the supporting cast list.Hermann Goering, the readers would probably think of as a fat formula of fun, and definitely th is is what he became in his later years, but in earlier times he was powerful and played an essential part in the rise of the Nazis. Mussolini, however, appears as relatively unimpressive. The Italians appears to be always hesitant and frequently unenthusiastic allies, considered enormously as second-class by the Germans, nevertheless Hitler seems to have had an indisputable fondness for Mussolini himself.There are good descriptions of Himmler, Goebbels, and the arrogant and unbearable Ribbentrop. Reasonably there is not much humor in this manuscript, but it does consist of an entertaining distinguish of an insulting disagreement between Goering and Ribbentrop. Another touch of humor comes from Hitlers symbolic demand to quote, When in my entire life did I ever prescribe a lie? The conflict with Britain was involuntary and Hitler by no means completely understood why the British declared war on him.He had not projected a general war in 1939. Once in progress, nevertheless, the e arly successes rapidly led to him to the view that he was perfect, and in future, he frequently rejected the suggestions and recommendations of his generals, taking the supervision of the war into his own hands and giving out the most comprehensive commands. When things began to be unsuccessful he turns flock to allow retreat in any circumstances and therefore wasted his resources, not to mention the lives of his troops, in hopeless last-minute stands.One of the many qualities of this bewitching account is its justification of Hitlers apparently confusing pronouncement to attack Russia, a pronouncement that was ultimately the major reason of his defeat. The author makes clear, it was always Hitlers objective to battle the Russians his purpose from the start was to spread out towards the East, not the West. And the Russian movement possibly would have ended differently had Hitler been agreeable to discover to the advice of his generals to concentrate on taking Moscow rather than pu rsuing subsidiary aims. Bullock is categorical about the guilt of Hitler in the Final Solution.Even though it was Himmler who carried out the rule of extermination, the man in whose mind so grotesque a plan had been conceived was Hitler. Without Hitlers authority, Himmler, a man solely of subordinate virtues, would never have dared to act on his own. Hitler and Himmler had secret meetings at which nobody else was permitted to be there, except seldom Bormann, and no record of these subsists. In the last part of his life Hitlers understanding of reality had become shaky, his carnal and mental corrosion being probably go faster by the quack remedies directed to him by his personal doctor.Even so, his semipolitical insight had not abandoned him. He predicted that, after the war, there would be only two Great Powers, USA and the Russia, who would plight in a trial of strength, either military or in the fields of economics and ideology. These two would rule the world between them unti l the nationalisms Asian, African, and perhaps southernmost American should arise. The author uses many first-hand sources, like Hitlers Mein Kampf and other Nazi leaders record, dialogues, articles and depositions in trials such as Nuremberg, for instance, Goebbels, Otto Dietrichs, Roehms, Giseviuss, Rosenbergs, etc., and other significant actors of the period, such as Mussolini, Ciano, Schuschnigg, Ludendorff, Churchill, and Weizacker. His bibliography seems quite comprehensive and as complete as could likely be for the period, and is separated into time periods and subjects. One of the first items observed here is for sure the almost overwhelming amount of information pertaining to the psychological makeup of the dictator and the many reiterations of certain mindsets such as Hitlers being a sufferer of his own propaganda.This information withal tries to give details everything from Hitlers detestation of the Jews to his consistent mindset, and his motivation to lie and run r oughshod over anything in his direction. whatsoever examples can be found all through the book, but the author also makes an effort a more or less complete physical and mental outline of the Fuehrer in chapter 7, The Dictator. The representation of Hitler given here may also seem a fragment simple and tied shoot to only a few aforesaid characteristics.Several statements in the book seem unnecessary or self-obvious Hitler is referred to as having an almost inexhaustible fund of freshness actually, a completely inexhaustible fund of resentment would be closer to the point, as he is still full of that particular emotion in his political testament, especially towards the Jews. Moreover, phrases like the fat, bald party treasurer have no precise value in this biography, and could have easily been left out. All in all, the book may be considered as a biography and historical recital, except during the final War-Lord section, where it seems to get caught up in military details.It might also be considered a difficult read because of the killings described and the general feeling of dissatisfaction that the subject suggests in the reader. Readers can only question, from the self-evident descriptions, terms and speeches evoked by the author, how come the German people, in addition to the other concerned countries people and leaders of that era, didnt see the coming adversities as obviously as the author puts down them out for us to see.ReferenceBullock, Alan. Hitler A Study in Tyranny. New York Bantam, 1961.

Thank You Letter

THUA THIEN HUE UNION OF FRIENDSHIP ORGANIZATIONS 25 NGUYEN VAN CU HUE CITY, VIETNAM TEL +84 54 3846493 FAX +84 54 3846493 Website huefo. org. vn Email emailprotected com thank YOU LETTER To Sunflower direction Organizations, the US Thua Thien Hue Union of Friendship Organizations would like to give greetings to your organization. The program of Phong Thu 2 and Quang Loi 2 primary school tress as well as workcamp activities at Quang Loi 2 primary school, Quang Dien, Thua Thien Hue was successfully taken place.We highly appreciate this result because of your timely support and reinforcing of cornerstone to promote education quality in these needy localities. More importantly, this is a very beautiful picture of Vietnamese people living in ground forces who always give warm care and practical help to our hometown. The results were reported to provincial bureaus and highly appreciated. Hence we appreciate the important role of Mr. Dao Nhat Tuan the Sunflower Missions Chairman as wel l as other members of the management board in US.Concurrently, we also acknowledge the efforts and enthusiasm of Ms. Dang Thi Ngoc Lang in close coordinate with us to conduct this project. We hope that Sunflower Misson will be always the core team in gathering more and more Overseas Vietnamese, particularly the Youth towards our country. Simultaneously, we also hope you will continue to corporate closely with us in coming times projects and activities. Once again, we would like to extinguish our deep gratitude to you and we wish you good health and a more developed organization. Sincerely, LE VAN ANH

The Roles of the Gods in Greek Myth

The Roles of the Gods in Greek Myth In Greek myth, at that place atomic number 18 many deities who specialize in different veritablems. According to Aeschyluss Prometheus stick out and Homers Iliad, Greek gods do non only have source, but also have interactions with humans. well-nigh of Greek deities perk up themselves or their aim kn let to humans through direct communication and indirect punishment. genus genus genus genus Zeus punishes Prometheus, the creator and protector of the mortals, for stealing elan from the gods and giving it to the human beings. Zeus, the magnate of the Gods, rules the mankind by his own laws.Although Prometheus is integrity of the most intelligent Titans and takes Zeuss side in the Titanomachy, he ejectnot avert being punished for the violation of Zeuss will. After Zeus wins the state of war against the Titans, he plans to destroy humans completely and create an another(prenominal) black market (Aesch. Pro. 229-237). Since Prometheus op poses Zeus and shows excessive stubbornness and pride, Zeus demands that his servants, Strength and Violence, chain Prometheus to a mountain to show his position. Gods also conk with human beings. For example, in Iliad, Athena comes overpower and tries to make peace between Agamemnon and Achilles.During the war between the Achaeans and Trojans, Achilles, one of the Achaeans most important warriors, is angry with the commander Agamemnon for ta top executive away his reward, Briseis, and sugar crusadeing for the Achaeans. Athena hates the Trojans, so she duologue with Achilles to convince him to stop fighting with Agamemnon and join the battle (Hom. Il. 1. 241-251). In addition, Athena gives the Achaean hero Diomedes incredible stance and the ability to see the gods so that Diomedes stern be more than powerful in the war (Hom. Il. 5. 1-3).She also encourages Diomedes and warns him not to ch whollyenge the gods except Aphrodite (Hom. Il. 5. 136-137). Although the Greek gods communicate with humans and help them in almost ways, they ar actually not morally respectable. Most of time, they make decisions based on their own interests. Almost all the Greek gods are involved in the outcome of Trojan War, which was originated from a quarrel between the goddesses Athena, Hera and Aphrodite. Zeus promises to help the Trojans not out of any threatening moral strikeation but quite an beca do he owes Achilless mother Thetis a favor (Hom.Il. 1. 600-609). Hera and Athena passionately hate the Trojans, so they work in concert to help the Achaeans recover from their retreat. Hera even seduces Zeus so that she potful help the Achaeans behind his back (Hom. Il. 14. 283-289). In addition, the River Xanthus is very angry when Achilles kills so many Trojans, whose corpses are choking him. But in the fight between Xanthus and Achilles, Poseidon, the god of sea, comes to help Achilles because he holds a grudge against the Trojans, who never paid him back for helping them condition their city.Because of the Greek gods involvement in the Trojan War, it becomes quite chaotic. None of them are impartial or fair to both sides of the war. They are very emotional and evermore try to fight against the people they hate. The selfsame(prenominal) type of behavior occurs in Prometheus Bound. Zeus has no pity or concern for others. He sent eagles to antiaircraft gun Prometheus repeatedly (Aesch. Pro. 1022-1025). Still, he decides to free Prometheus finally because Prometheus agrees to offer him an oracle. Therefore, the Greek gods are narcissistic and do not pursue a moral code at all.Zeus is not morally upright however, as the king of the Olympian gods, he plays an important role in both elysian and human interactions. The main depicted object of Homers Iliad is the wrath of Achilles. though Achilles refuses to fight against the Trojans because of Agamemnons disrespect, he returns to the battle finally. This largely depends on Zeus, who is one of the moderators in this degree. He agrees to punish the Achaeans when Achilless mother Thetis asks him to do so, which abates Achilless rage. In most parts of the story, Zeus stays impartial and keeps other gods from intervening in the war.In addition, Zeus, as the symbol of power and justice, never comes down onto the study to impede with the mortal conflicts, in contrast to the rest of the gods who fight for what they favor. For instance, Apollo and Artemis, who support the Trojans in the war, often give aid to the city of Troy. Zeus acts as a sense of equilibrium through the entire war. Since he is subordinate to Fates, he keeps the gods in monastic order and prevents them from violating the Fates. Zeus allows some gods to go to the battlefield after Apollo joins the battle because he doesnt want the Achaeans to win earlier than they are supposed to.Throughout the Trojan War, Zeus is the director who keeps the war move along the right track. He mostly cadaver neutral and p lays a vital role in the divine and human interactions. The divine interactions between Zeus and other gods are related to human affairs. These connections can be found in the relationship between king and subjects, male and female. All the Greek deities need to obey Zeuss rules because he is the king of the gods, a powerful tyrant. However, Prometheus is an exception. He gives fire to mankind and is so stubborn that he refuses to make peace with Zeus (Aesch.Pro. 167-175). As a result, he is chain to a mountain, where other gods can see how humiliating he is. Agamemnon, the leader of the Achaean army is also selfish and arrogant, which is the same as Zeus. When one of his valuable warriors Achilles challenges his leadership, Agamemnon is so angry that he takes away Achilless reward (Hom. Il. 1. 378-382). So it is obvious that no matter in the Greek mythology or real world, the king always is endowed with power that he can control his territory and get whatever he wants.But there i s a minor different in the standing of male and female. Unlike ordinary women, the Greek female deities do have some power for instance, Hera is the goddess of hymeneals and women fertility Aphrodite is the goddess of sexual attraction. While in mankind, Homer describes women as useless containers. Since they only consume food and do not produce, they are inferior and not able to speak their wills or make any decisions. In Iliad, Chryseis and Briseis, a pair of beautiful maidens is honored to Agamemnon and Achilles separately.When Chryseiss father tries his best to get his girlfriend back, Agamemnon replaces Chryseis with Achilless lover Briseis. Chryseis and Briseis are toughened as objects. Homer does not mention any of their words in the book because no one cares how they actually feel except their parents. Overall, the similarities between divine interactions and human affairs are that the kings are always powerful and the female is subservient to the male. Though Iliad is a story about ancient heroes, gods and goddesses, it does reflect the determine and conditions of Greek society at that time.Iliad was written around eighth century BC, the primitive Period in Greek history. The main transition is the rise of polis and colonisation in Greek society. In the book, all the gods are leaded by Zeus and obey his rules, which reflects that each polis has its own ruler who is not morally upright and tends to set up dictatorships, raise armies and attack other polies to expand his influence. Additionally, the human relationships are not well if we consider the relationship between Zeus and Hera. In the Trojan War, Hera absolutely backs up the Achaeans.So when Thetis asks Zeus to help the Trojans, he is hesitated however, he finally agrees because he owes her (Hom. Il. 1. 619-635). Hera hears that and asks Zeus whats his plan, but Zeus replies that she will be the first to know whatever is right for her (Hom. Il. 1. 644-660). So Hera is very angry and decid es to seduce Zeus in order to help the Achaeans behind his back. From the myth, we can identify that there is hardly any trust or promise between husband and wife. So its practical that husband and wife in real Greek family may trailer truck each other for different reasons.Furthermore, Zeus promises Thetis that he will give Achilles more glories, which reflects that honor can be one of the most important subjects during that time. People want glory so that they can be powerful in the society. In conclusion, the Greek gods always have power in different areas, but they still are not as powerful as Zeus who rules the world. They use different ways to show their power to the human beings, such as communication and punishment. However, these Greek gods including Zeus are not morally upright. They act on their own selfish purposes and sometimes cheat each other to get what they want.As the king of the gods, Zeus is crucial in the human and divine interactions. He can control the war and make those who challenge his authority like Prometheus to suffer. The depiction of the gods and divine interactions actually provides a realistic view of human conditions. The rise of polis and closure are the important themes in the Archaic Period. The king of the polis always has strong power and makes decisions based on his will. The warriors and leaders are usually male because women are considered to be useless and inferior, which is a little contrast to the Greek myth.The Roles of the Gods in Greek MythThe Roles of the Gods in Greek Myth In Greek myth, there are many deities who specialize in different realms. According to Aeschyluss Prometheus Bound and Homers Iliad, Greek gods do not only have power, but also have interactions with humans. Most of Greek deities make themselves or their intent known to humans through direct communication and indirect punishment. Zeus punishes Prometheus, the creator and protector of the mortals, for stealing fire from the gods and giving it to the human beings. Zeus, the king of the Gods, rules the world by his own laws.Although Prometheus is one of the most intelligent Titans and takes Zeuss side in the Titanomachy, he cannot avoid being punished for the violation of Zeuss will. After Zeus wins the war against the Titans, he plans to destroy humans completely and create another race (Aesch. Pro. 229-237). Since Prometheus opposes Zeus and shows excessive stubbornness and pride, Zeus demands that his servants, Strength and Violence, chain Prometheus to a mountain to show his power. Gods also communicate with human beings. For example, in Iliad, Athena comes down and tries to make peace between Agamemnon and Achilles.During the war between the Achaeans and Trojans, Achilles, one of the Achaeans most important warriors, is angry with the commander Agamemnon for taking away his reward, Briseis, and stops fighting for the Achaeans. Athena hates the Trojans, so she talks with Achilles to convince him to stop fighting wi th Agamemnon and join the battle (Hom. Il. 1. 241-251). In addition, Athena gives the Achaean hero Diomedes incredible strength and the ability to see the gods so that Diomedes can be more powerful in the war (Hom. Il. 5. 1-3).She also encourages Diomedes and warns him not to challenge the gods except Aphrodite (Hom. Il. 5. 136-137). Although the Greek gods communicate with humans and help them in some ways, they are actually not morally upright. Most of time, they make decisions based on their own interests. Almost all the Greek gods are involved in the outcome of Trojan War, which was originated from a quarrel between the goddesses Athena, Hera and Aphrodite. Zeus promises to help the Trojans not out of any profound moral consideration but rather because he owes Achilless mother Thetis a favor (Hom.Il. 1. 600-609). Hera and Athena passionately hate the Trojans, so they work together to help the Achaeans recover from their retreat. Hera even seduces Zeus so that she can help the Ac haeans behind his back (Hom. Il. 14. 283-289). In addition, the River Xanthus is very angry when Achilles kills so many Trojans, whose corpses are choking him. But in the fight between Xanthus and Achilles, Poseidon, the god of sea, comes to help Achilles because he holds a grudge against the Trojans, who never paid him back for helping them build their city.Because of the Greek gods involvement in the Trojan War, it becomes quite chaotic. None of them are impartial or fair to both sides of the war. They are very emotional and always try to fight against the people they hate. The same type of behavior occurs in Prometheus Bound. Zeus has no pity or concern for others. He sent eagles to attack Prometheus repeatedly (Aesch. Pro. 1022-1025). Still, he decides to free Prometheus finally because Prometheus agrees to offer him an oracle. Therefore, the Greek gods are selfish and do not obey a moral code at all.Zeus is not morally upright however, as the king of the Olympian gods, he plays an important role in both divine and human interactions. The main theme of Homers Iliad is the wrath of Achilles. Though Achilles refuses to fight against the Trojans because of Agamemnons disrespect, he returns to the battle finally. This largely depends on Zeus, who is one of the moderators in this story. He agrees to punish the Achaeans when Achilless mother Thetis asks him to do so, which abates Achilless rage. In most parts of the story, Zeus stays impartial and keeps other gods from intervening in the war.In addition, Zeus, as the symbol of authority and justice, never comes down onto the battlefield to interfere with the mortal conflicts, in contrast to the rest of the gods who fight for what they favor. For instance, Apollo and Artemis, who support the Trojans in the war, often give aid to the city of Troy. Zeus acts as a balance through the entire war. Since he is subordinate to Fates, he keeps the gods in order and prevents them from violating the Fates. Zeus allows some gods to go to the battlefield after Apollo joins the battle because he doesnt want the Achaeans to win earlier than they are supposed to.Throughout the Trojan War, Zeus is the director who keeps the war move along the right track. He mostly remains neutral and plays a vital role in the divine and human interactions. The divine interactions between Zeus and other gods are related to human affairs. These connections can be found in the relationship between king and subjects, male and female. All the Greek deities need to obey Zeuss rules because he is the king of the gods, a powerful tyrant. However, Prometheus is an exception. He gives fire to mankind and is so stubborn that he refuses to make peace with Zeus (Aesch.Pro. 167-175). As a result, he is chained to a mountain, where other gods can see how humiliating he is. Agamemnon, the leader of the Achaean army is also selfish and arrogant, which is the same as Zeus. When one of his valuable warriors Achilles challenges his leadership , Agamemnon is so angry that he takes away Achilless reward (Hom. Il. 1. 378-382). So it is obvious that no matter in the Greek mythology or real world, the king always is endowed with power that he can control his territory and get whatever he wants.But there is a little different in the standing of male and female. Unlike ordinary women, the Greek female deities do have some power for instance, Hera is the goddess of marriage and women fertility Aphrodite is the goddess of sexual attraction. While in mankind, Homer describes women as useless containers. Since they only consume food and do not produce, they are inferior and not able to speak their wills or make any decisions. In Iliad, Chryseis and Briseis, a pair of beautiful maidens is honored to Agamemnon and Achilles separately.When Chryseiss father tries his best to get his daughter back, Agamemnon replaces Chryseis with Achilless lover Briseis. Chryseis and Briseis are treated as objects. Homer does not mention any of their w ords in the book because no one cares how they actually feel except their parents. Overall, the similarities between divine interactions and human affairs are that the kings are always powerful and the female is subservient to the male. Though Iliad is a story about ancient heroes, gods and goddesses, it does reflect the values and conditions of Greek society at that time.Iliad was written around eighth century BC, the Archaic Period in Greek history. The main transition is the rise of polis and colonization in Greek society. In the book, all the gods are leaded by Zeus and obey his rules, which reflects that each polis has its own ruler who is not morally upright and tends to set up dictatorships, raise armies and attack other polies to expand his influence. Additionally, the human relationships are not well if we consider the relationship between Zeus and Hera. In the Trojan War, Hera absolutely backs up the Achaeans.So when Thetis asks Zeus to help the Trojans, he is hesitated ho wever, he finally agrees because he owes her (Hom. Il. 1. 619-635). Hera hears that and asks Zeus whats his plan, but Zeus replies that she will be the first to know whatever is right for her (Hom. Il. 1. 644-660). So Hera is very angry and decides to seduce Zeus in order to help the Achaeans behind his back. From the myth, we can find that there is hardly any trust or promise between husband and wife. So its possible that husband and wife in real Greek family may cheat each other for different reasons.Furthermore, Zeus promises Thetis that he will give Achilles more glories, which reflects that honor can be one of the most important subjects during that time. People want glory so that they can be powerful in the society. In conclusion, the Greek gods always have power in different areas, but they still are not as powerful as Zeus who rules the world. They use different ways to show their power to the human beings, such as communication and punishment. However, these Greek gods incl uding Zeus are not morally upright. They act on their own selfish purposes and sometimes cheat each other to get what they want.As the king of the gods, Zeus is crucial in the human and divine interactions. He can control the war and make those who challenge his authority like Prometheus to suffer. The depiction of the gods and divine interactions actually provides a realistic view of human conditions. The rise of polis and colonization are the important themes in the Archaic Period. The king of the polis always has strong power and makes decisions based on his will. The warriors and leaders are usually male because women are considered to be useless and inferior, which is a little contrast to the Greek myth.

How Will Earning a Degree Change My Life

College- Is it worth it? In society to daylight a college education isnt an option, scarce rather a necessity. When thinking about college people comm sole(prenominal) think more about what they have to do to get through it when they should be thinking about what they want out of it and what they go forth gain from it. the great unwashed often say that college isnt worth the time and money, but getting a arcdegree and brining the skills you gained to the really world will be very proficient to you.Some people go to college for the title for being a college student for others its a way to leave home and become indep subvertent without completely losing the financial help of their parents. Most go because they have to, not because they want to. High school students are constantly being pressured not only by family members but also by guidance counselors to go to college because its the right thing to do. We all have an idea of what we want in life, but we end up doing the oppos ite and doing what our mentors think is best for us, resulting in being miserable. The investment of time, money and energy is it really worth it?For some fields, a college degree is absolutely necessary. That doesnt mean you will get a job right after graduation. Even if you do get a job, it is not usually what you have your degree in. College is a gamble most students will be in debt after graduating working any job just to pay those off. Some college graduates even end up back at home living with their parents due to the debt they are in. The competition for decent jobs is increasing. You cant get a high pay job without at least a bachelors degree. Before jobs hired workers with only High school Diplomas but, now they require some college education.Every day the decision is being made to either construct a career or dropout. There are people out there who have never dictated foot in a college and are doing better than people with masters degrees. But, those are the exceptions w hich are one out of a billion even millions. So before you make this decision ask yourself where do I see myself 5 or 10 years from today? Do I need higher education to where I want to be? The skills you gain while in college are skills you will need in the real world. Bills have to be paid, deadlines have to be met and you have to learn to manage time efficiently.Its completely different from High school because not only are you dealing with school youre also juggling your personal life and your financial state as well. College has its pros and cons like everything else in life. Your experience will be what you make. If you arent willing to put in your all into it, college isnt for you. You may not get lucky and start your career right after graduating but with persistence and hard work in the long run a degree will help you get to where you want to go in life. Dont think of as a waste of time and money think of it as exciting challenge that will help set up your future.

Romeo and Juliet Comparrison Movie

The famous play, Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare, have been adapted into two movies. Zeffirelli directed a historical characterisation of the film, and Luhr publicn directed a modern interpretation of the film. Both versions were represent in Shakespeares original text. apiece movie had use a different approach when it came to setting, props and mood. In Zeffirellis version, the setting was a recreation of the 14th century, in the city of Verona, Italy along with ambience of classical music, traditional dancing, renaissance vestments and Shakespearean dialogue.Luhrmans Hollywood remake called Romeo+Juliet had a combination of original Shakespearean dialogue with a modern kink. The ambience was in Verona beach in the 1990s that included car chases, costume parties and gunfights. The twist of this version was to imagine the tragic storyline in a modern perspective and how it would fit into nowadayss society. The props in both movies were different. For instance in the Luh rmans version, money was used sort of of gold coins. This is shown when Romeo pays the apothecary for poison.In this version guns replaced swords. This is shown in the fighting scenes of the movie. Zeffirellis had kept the gold coins. An exemplar give the sack be when Romeo gives these coins. He had also kept the swords for the fighting scenes as well, so it can be relevant and historically accurate to Shakespeares time. The moods in each movie were very different. In Zeffeirellis version the film was very intense and the audience could feel the affection, grief, rage, and enmity of each character. An example can be when Mercutio is giving the famous Queen Mab speech.In this scene the audience can see that Mercutio not just a joker but he also has a dark side. On the oppositewise hand in Luhrmanns version the mood was very comedic and less suspenseful. This was shown from the more humorous in time passionate actors. An example can at the party when Luhrmann dresses Paris in a spaceman fit to make him look ridiculous and uses him as comic relief. This symbolizes that Paris is not what Juliet wants in a man and knows that Romeo is her true love. The passing of time in Zeffeirellis version was slower than the faster paced modern version.In both films, a few scenes were left out, such as the fight with Paris at the Capulets tomb. In conclusion, Luhrmann and Zeffirelli both interpreted Shakespeares play, Romeo and Juliet, very well. One was presented with a modern-day twist and the other presented in the actual times of the original play. Personally, I enjoyed watching Zeffirellis version more because it portrayed the authentic work of Shakespeare and the past of Verona, Italy. There was also more suspense and one could feel the tightness and emotions of the characters more.

Aggressive Behavior of Marine Fishes

The notion of survival of the fittest of Charles Darwin denotes competition in the available life resources among living organisms. Biologists typically classify competition as exploitative or flummox competition and interference or defense competition (Reebs, 2008). In exploitative competition, the species explore every recession in the environment to search for the ruff niche, ample food supply or even the best fit.On the other hand, defense competition results when a particular species defend their niche, food stuffs, offspring, and mate against invading animals (Reebs, 2008). With these, animals translate aggressive behaviors to warn other species or to defend themselves.Hierarchical Social Structure Among FishesChasing and biting ar unremarkably observed among tipes especially when a new one was placed in the group of fishes in a tank or an aquarium. Aggressive behaviors be shown by supreme fishes in the group until such clock snip that a certain order was attained w ithin the group where specific place for every fish has been defined (Reebs, 2008).This is called as hierarchy among fishes for a single fish dominates other fishes in the group. Since fishes not besides spend high energy in fighting further also suffer injuries (Reebs, 2008), the attainment of harmoniousness within their group with hierarchical social structure benefits them all.This phenomenon is observed among the school of salmonids, eels, centrarchids, catfishes, poeciliids, and other species (Reebs, 2008).In the hierarchy, the dominant fish tends to limit the access of subordinate fishes to available life resources such as food. As normally observed in brown bullhead, salmon, cichlids, and medaka, the dominant fish chases subordinate fishes away from food resources (Reebs, 2008).Thus, they are force to occupy the barren part of the habitat. As a consequence, fishes in the lower ranks are prone to emphasise due to annoyance and bullies of dominant fishes.This stress induce s them to release metabolic hormones, as revealed by blood outline of subordinate fishes (Reebs, 2008), that may affect then their physiological processes including growth and reproduction.The stability of the dominant status depends on the type of fish species. For instance, rainbow trout can remember their hierarchical place. Even if there will be a reduction in the physical strength of the dominant fish, lower rank fished would not attempt to understand advantage and stage a coup (Reebs, 2008).On the contrary, catfishes in lower rank often look for an probability to dethrone the dominant fish as it shows weakness (Reebs, 2008). In the same manner, as the dominant males of cichlid guard the breeding areas, subordinate males always look for an opportunity of entreating females. These experimental observations proved the social kinetics among fishes.Territorial Defense and Aggressive BehaviorsIt was observed among Cottus bairdii and Rhinichthysvcataractae that adults used to occ upy the deeper part of their habitat while the newborn forages on the shallow part (Reebs, 2008). This condition not only exposes the young to the threat of predation but also limits their food access.Meanwhile, in Betta splendens, the nest-holding males tend to display more aggressive behavior during the female put of eggs and even more after the hatching of eggs (Jaroensutasinee and Jaroensutasinee, 2003). Also, black-belt cichlids, Cichlasoma maculicauda, assault egg predators more ferociously than non-egg predators (Reebs, 2008). They usually fry the enemy at a particular distance before launching an attack.This territoriality in terms of food resources defense is effectively done over fairly small habitat. If food resources are in a vast area, the dominant fish can hardly provide efficient protection, hence, starring(p) to non-display of aggressive behaviour (Reebs, 2008).Trout and salmon have been observed to occupy and protect vast areas when food resources are limited. Th is means that territorial defense is absent if the ecological needs are distributed in vast areas and if the emergence of intruders is great as compared with the inhabitant fishes (Reebs, 2008).Mating and Aggressive BehaviorsFish may acquire aggressive behavior by plainly just observing aggression between conspecifics (Clotfelter and Paolino, 2003). The presence of audience during fish fight may savvy out for the increased behavioral display between fighting fishes (Doutrelant and McGregor, 2000).In B. splendens, male-fight also-rans used gill cover to string non-witness female while the winner displayed to both witness and non-witness females (Herb, Biron, and Kidd, 20030). After witnessing the two-male wrestle, the female fighting fish, B. splendens, spent time more often with the winner while failure to witness the event, the female visited more often the loser (Doutrelant and McGregor, 2000).Conversely, although size-advantage males of B. splendens species have more contin gency of winning male-fight but the winning does not affect female preferences of mate (Jaroensutasinee and Jaroensutasinee, 2001).Dominant males of swordtails and guppies delve on the larger part of their habitat including the dwelling place of the females (Reebs, 2008). Due to dominant exclusion, the cozy activities of subordinate fishes tend to be suppressed.This process of exclusion paves the ways for the subordinate male guppies to spontaneously commence a more robust body color that is more attractive for female guppies, thus, regaining the chance for mating (Reebs, 2008).Biological Bases of AggressionAggressive behaviors among animals are typically attributed to the biochemical function of the androgens. Researches revealed that by androgen decrease in a number of animal male species through castration lessened aggression while injection of hormones to weaken males caused regained aggressions (Desjardins, Hazelden, Van der Kraak, and Balshinea, 2005).Based on the findings of the group of John Wingfield, aggression can also be ascribed to physiological causes. They postulated through Challenge Hypothesis that aggressive encounters among males of the same species lead to production of androgens (Desjardins, Hazelden, Van der Kraak, and Balshinea, 2005).Their notion resulted to the emersion of some(prenominal) studies relating aggressive behaviors with increase in androgen, urinary, plasma, and fecal level.

Global Civil Societies

on that point has been a great deal of expansion and formation of new civic societies around the globe. This has speci eithery rise up approximately due to the run of internationalization and the expansion of elected governance, telecommunications and economic integration, in addition, as easy as the threat to security. The end point is seen as a progressive process particularly because many declargon that globular well up-bred night club is committed to the values of valet rights, gender equality, social justice and majority rule.On the unit international elegant societies be those organizations that consort in the international realm that sh atomic number 18 the purpose of correcting the human social order, bringing intimately harmony and dealing with issues that affect human warrantdom and human equality, in other words these world-wide well-mannered societies are concerned nigh creating a better public through advocating a fairer, freer and a more just world-wide order. Just to name a few, organizations much(prenominal) as the World Trade Organization, Amnesty International, Greenpeace and Human Rights Watch.Thus the following essay shall critically review the disparate explanations of worldwide Civil Societies and insure at what are world-wide well-mannered societies are and its purpose as well as share light on criticisms of global accomplished societies. Although the idea of global well-mannered community fits well with the notion of creating a just global world, there are descriptions that are exceedingly contested and argued against. In order for us to understand the purpose of global elegant societies, unmatchable needs to understand the term accomplished societies.Therefore the following paragraph shall put light on the meaning and record of courteousian confederation. Civil rescript is seen as a social sphere independent of the bow and the securities industry (Thorn and Moksnes. 20125). It is unde rstood as the collection of non- tell apart, non-profit, voluntary organization formed by people within a state. These organizations seek to influence the policy of brass and international organizations and to complement disposal services. Traditionally urbane ships company includes networks, associations, groups, movements that occupy the social space mingled with the family and the state.Yet there befuddle been various changes to the definition of civil company, which go away later be seen as a challenge to the term global civil society. Mary Kaldor, in her article The idea of Global Civil Society, elaborates on the apprehension of civil society and how it becomes global civil society. She explains, civil society is a modern concept, which can be traced back to Aristotle and other modern thinkers, who came to moot that there was no distinction amid civil society and the state (Kaldor. 2003584). Thus civil society at this time was seen as a type of state that was charact erised by a social push (Kaldor. 003584). However in the nineteenth century the concept of civil society took on a unhurt new meaning, it was now seen as dependent of the state. It now becomes to be seen as the intermediate realm between the family and the state (Kaldor. 2003584). For Hegel, civil society was the achievement of the modern world-the territory of mediation where there is a free play for every idiosyncrasy, every talent, every accident of birth and fortune and where waves of passion gust forth, adjust only by reason glinting through them (John. 9993), thus to Hegel, civil societies included the economy and its write up (Hegel. 1996). Yet in the early twentieth century, civil society adopted a new definition, it came to be understood as the realm not just between the state and the family, yet the realm between culture, ideology, political debate, the state and the family (Kaldor. 2003585). oneness aspect that is comraded with the concept of civil society is the rel ationship it shares with socialism and democracy, in other words it recognizes the sociological underpinnings of modern democracy (Khilnami. 00116). Thus, one can understand that civil societies were about a rule-governed society based on the consent of individuals. Overall, civil society is a process through which individuals can negotiate, argue, fight against or agree with each other on political and frugal issues, and these can all be done through voluntary associations, movements, parties, unions and the individual. Issues much(prenominal) as political rights, the economy, human rights, and labour rights are the things civil society contests with the government (Anheier et al. 0014). As stated before they reach kick backaries that the government cannot. This leads to the interrogative mood, what is global civil society, in retrospect it is civil societies within the global sphere which deals with global issues. However, how global is civil society? What is global civil soc iety? Many supporters of global civil society be set about stressed the latter, asserting that global civil society is a progressive concept, in other words, one that advances the values of social justice and human rights.For example, Mary Kaldor (2003), states that global civil society is also about the meaning of human equality in an increasingly unjust world. Global civil society can be defined as encompassing all associations, excluding governments, the private sectors and families that act transnationally, thus it is about understanding globalization from small levels such as from the ordinary people. In addition global civil society refers to the huge collection of groups that operate a swing out borders and beyond the reach of governments (Anheier et al. 0013). A simple definition of the concept is as follows, it is a vast, interconnected and multi-layered non-governmental space that comprises many hundreds of thousands of self-directing institutions and ways of life that ge nerate global effects, the ideal type of global civil society, which will be discussed later, brings in the idea that we can beef up our collective powers of guiding and transforming world order (Storrar et al. 2011). Furthermore, global civil society refers to civil society groups that operate within the global spectrum.It can be linked to the process of globalisation which has allowed the globalization of communication and schooling and a global market, where you find citizens in one country support citizens in another. Therefore, the term, global civil society refers to non-governmental structures and activities that consist of individuals, households, profit seeking business, non-profit governmental organisations, coalitions, social movements and cultural communities that work towards a prevalent objective (Keane. 20037).It also comprises of public personalities, such as Gandhi and Bill Gates, as well as bodies such as Amnesty International and the International Red Cross (Ke ane. 20037). All these associations and organizations despite geographical distance, and barriers of time, have deliberately organised themselves and conducted cross boarder social activities, business and politics outside the boundaries of governmental structures in the hope to create a just global order. John Keane argues that global civil societies is taking imprint but that its character and implications for the older state system remain unclear (Keane. 0037), as many associate civil society as being part of the state, yet the concept of the global civil society is that it is independent of the state and that it functions on its own, such as non-governmental organisation and international organizations. This is a contested argument. Consequently, Global civil society adopted a similar concept as civil society, however it is seen as a response to rising concerns for the need of a new social, economic and political deal at the global level.Thus it functions at a global level and looks at issues that affect the whole world. One of the definitions of global civil society is it being an ideal-type, John Keane speaks of the ideal-type of global civil society, according to him, it is referred to as a moral force non-governmental system of international socio-economical institutions that straddle the whole earth, and that has complex effects that are felt in its cardinal corners. It is neither a static object nor a fait accompli (Keane. 0038). He fosters states that global civil society is an unsheathed project that consists of sometimes thick, and other times thinly stretched networkssocio-economic institutions and actors who organise themselves across borders, with the deliberate aim of drafting the world together (Keane, 20038). Therefore it is seen as its own form of society, which uses its own powers, influences, without the use of neither violent, nor the inspection and repair from the state and government to bring about change.On the other hand, many question whether global civil society is democratic. Global civil society in many senses can be said to be democratic as it claims to be independent of the nation states and is not influenced by the government. Hakan Thorn and Heidi Moksnes argue that global civil society can be linked to global democratisation, particularly because it represents a response to the democratic deficit, which is seen as one of the most problematic aspects of the globalization process (Thorn and Moksnes. 0124). Thus global civil society, as a process of self-organisation of transnational social spheres is seen as a potential carrier of democratic nurture processes, as it has the ability to widen the meaning and practice of democracy across nations, allowing for public debate, as well as advocate for human rights, through its cooperation with civil societies and its relation with states and other influential organizations such as transnational corporations.It was mentioned earlier that global civil soci ety is considered progressive, for example in the case of its rouse against Landmines and the Jubilee 2000 campaign for debt relief are two of their successful campaigns (Wild. 2006 2). They have also, according to Wild, have succeeded in putting former new issues and ides onto the international agenda, changing national and international policies and have helped improve the transparency and accountability of global institutions, as well as mobilized public awareness and political engagement (Wild. 20062).On the other hand, it is argued that global civil society is not inherently progressive, it is rather seen as being heterogeneous, as you will find that it comprises of groups that are illiberal, anti-democratic, violent as well as liberal, democratic and peaceful. In other words, lets look at what exactly are global civil societies made of, Thorn and Moksnes state that, global civil society are comprised of civil society actors whom engage across the world within the global sub ject, in sharing experiences and formulating global norms (Thorn and Moksnes. 20124).Thus if Greenpeace is part of global civil societies, surly Al Qaeda is too. Therefore, global civil society as being democratic is highly contested. Furthermore it is difficult to understand the concept of global civil society as being independent of the government, because questions of funding, legal assistance, protection from threats arise, as the state and government are seen by many as the only body that is capable of organizing effective legitimate power. In addition as we look at previous definitions of civil society, it was once defined as having relations with the state.Further on, one may question how can non-governmental organizations poses political influences if it has no ties whatsoever with the neither state nor government. Secondly how can one be sure what is the correct definition of global civil society as the term civil society has in the past adopted several definitions? Corry ( 2006) writes of the critics of global civil societies, where he shares light on three main criticism of the meanings and definitions of global civil society.According to him, these criticism have awakened particularly because, the term global civil society over the years has been seen as hopelessly vague, others doubt its ability to effectively challenge the strong hold the state has, and lastly many question its ability in being a actor on the world stage because of the supposed anti-democratic personality of global civil society. The first criticism claims that it is ambiguous, its definitions is weak and holds no theoretical explanation (Corry. 2006305).The problem with the term is that there have been so many contested definitions as to what civil society is that it is criticised for exactly what does civil society really mean in this contemporary and modern world. It becomes a problem because now which definition is relevant and most functional. A second criticism is the prob lem of statist bias, it is argued that global civil society is no product of that state, yet many beg to differ particularly because of the term civil society which in the past was in relation with the state (Corry. 2006306).They accuse global civil society of suggesting a mystic comparison between global and interior(prenominal) spheres (Corry. 2006307). Clearly this is seen as contradictory because there are no similarities at global and domestic level. Therefore, one may understand this contradiction as the global civil society not sure itself as whether it wants to be a product of the state or not. Because domestic spheres is highly organized by the state, and you cannot have such domestic issues brought into the global spheres which global civil societies deport it can.A third criticism is that global civil society is undemocratic, its legitimacy is questioned and highly condemned that it undermines democracy by sapping further the authority of the nation-state, as it is see n as the only democratic institution (Corry. 2006308). Corry quotes from John Fonte, whom states that global civil society, which are transnational agencies and non-governmental organizations deny or override the national sovereignty of democratic states against surprisingly muted or incoherent opposition (Fonte. 004), what he means by this is that global civil society bring about new political and democratic challenges to the sovereignty of the state, and undermines the states democratic ability. Thus it is more of a problem of what exactly is global and civil society as they both can be tremendous as processes on their own. One needs to look at the global in the term global civil society. The term global separates itself from the state, as it refers to the international arena rather than the domestic arena which is bound by the state.Although, Corry states that the Global may be regarded as a post-statist rather than non-statist term, particularly because the term derived from th e concept and structure of the state, he sees it as a continuation of the state rather than a separated sphere. One may argue that the Global is a form of state, yet just within the international arena as it sought to function as a state. Although Keane argues that, civil societies become global once they cross state boundaries (Keane. 200317).Overall, the term can be said to be contradictory, particularly because of the changing definitions and meanings of the concept of civil society, as it has made the term global civil society a contested one. Global civil society is understood as the collection of civil societies within the international realm, these are non-governmental structures and activities that consist of individuals, actors, non-governmental organisations, international organizations, profit seeking business, non-profit governmental organisations, social movements and cultural communities that work towards a just global order.These are institutions and organisations tha t function across borders beyond the reach of government. One of definitions that global civil society tries to pursue is that it is not a product of the nation-state and that is independent of the state, this here is one of the highly contested definitions of global civil society, particularly because it sought to function as a state at the global level. From the above, we saw three criticisms towards the term, which all contested its definition and its contradiction to being independent of the state and its perceived anti-democratic nature.The term contradicts itself merely because, it claims to be a process on its own that is not affiliated with the state, yet it functions towards human rights, gender equality, democracy and global justice, these are all seen as attributes of a democratic institutions. One may argue that the state is the only institution that can hold legitimate democracy. One of the contending arguments is that global civil society in anti-democratic, as you fin d it comprising of various groups and organizations that do not advocate for democracy. Yet the term is still and evolving concept as we see the increase of globalization.

Evolution of Management Essay

As longsighted as in that respect allow been human endeavors, there have been masses unstrained to take charge plenty entrusting to plan, organize, lag, and concur the carry. One might say that nature abhors a vacuum and thus almost ane volition al slip panache step forward to fill a conducting void. Probably the natural emergence of leadership grew tabu of our instinct for survival. In the hostile world of early(a) humankind, food, shelter, and safety needs usu on the wholey inf aloneible cooperative elbow greases, and cooperative efforts required some form of leadership. Certainly leadership was vested in the heads of early families via the decrepit system.The dodderyest member of the family was the most experienced and was presumed to be the wisest member of the family and thus was the natural leader. As families grew into tribes and tribes evolved into nations, to a greater extent Gordian forms of leadership were required and did evolve. Division of labor a nd supervision pr turningices is recorded on the earliest written record, the cadaver tablets of the Sumerians. In Sumerian society, as in more an opposite(prenominal)s since, the wisest and best leaders were thought to be the priests and other religious leaders. Likewise, the ancient Babylonian cities developed very strict codes, such as the code of Hammurabi. mightiness Nebuchadnezzar apply color codes to hold up takings of the hanging gardens, and there were weekly and annual reports, norms for productivity, and rewards for piece run amodal value. The Egyptians organize their mint and their slaves to build their cities and pyramids. Construction of one pyramid, nigh 5000 BC. , required the labor of 100,000 people act asing for approximately 20 years. Planning, organizing, and controlling were es moveial elements of that and other feats, many of them long term. The ancient Egyptian Pharaohs had long-term planners and advisors, as did their generation in China.China perfe cted military nerve found on railway line and staff principles and applyd these same principles in the early Chinese dynasties. Confucius wrote parables that offered practical suggestions for public government activity. In the Old Testament, Moses led a root of Jewish slaves out of Egypt and then organized them into a nation. Exodus, Chapter 18, describes how Moses chose able men out of all Israel and made them heads over the people, and diametriciated between rulers of thousands, rulers of hundreds, rulers of fifties and rulers of tens. A system of judges in addition evolved, with scarce the hard cases coming to Moses. The city-states of Greece were commonwealths, with councils, courts, administrative officials, and boards of generals. Socrates talked c lapse to commission as a skill separate from expert knowledge and experience. Plato wrote virtually peculiarity and proposed notions of a healthy republic. The Roman Empire is thought by many to have been so successf ul because of the Romans great ability to organize the military and conquer invigorated lands.Those direct to govern the far-flung separate of the empire were effective administrators and were able to maintain traffichips with leaders from other provinces and cross shipway the empire as a whole. There atomic number 18 numerous other ancient leaders who were respectable organizers, at least as indicated by their accomplishments, such as Hannibal, who shepherded an army across the Alps, and the first off emperor moth of China, who built the Great Wall. some of the practices employed today in leading, managing, and ad looking neo shapings have their origins in antiquity.Many concepts of means developed in a religious context. One example is the Roman Catholic church service with its efficient schematic organization and palmment techniques. The chain of command or path of authority, including the concept of specialness, was a most important contribution to way possibl e action. Machiavelli to a fault wrote about authority, stressing that it comes from the consent of the masses. However, the ideas Machiavelli expressed in The Prince argon more a lot viewed as mainly concerned with leadership and communication.Much portion outment theory has military origins, probably because efficiency and effectiveness argon essential for success in warf atomic number 18. The concepts of unity of command, line of command, staff advisors, and division of operate all fag end be traced back at least to Alexander the Great, or even earlier, to Lao Tzu. The Industrial Revolution created a need for new-fashioned thinking and the refinement of old thinking. Time and motion studies intensified the division of wreak, as did centralized yield and re bet and development. Modern wariness theory prevails afterwards.The preceding historical review indicates that thinking about management and leadership is in whopping part situational and that practices evolved to film with new situations that arose. It excessively indicates that yesterdays principles and theories be amazingly contemporary and surprisingly sophisticated. Some overlap occurs, of course, and some gaps. Todays theorists have attempted to fill in the gaps and refuse the theories to current situations. Yet, like in other areas of thought, not ofttimes is of recent origin in the news report of management theory.The Evolution of perplexity Changes in management practices occur as coachs, theorists, researchers, and consultants seek new ways to increase organisational efficiency and effectiveness. The driving force behind the evolution of management theory is the search for softtimes ways to utilize organisational resources. Advances in management theory typically occur as managers and researchers find better ways to finish the principal management projections planning, organizing, leading, and controlling human and other organisational resources.In this paper, we forget d eliver to examine how management theory concerning appropriate management practices has evolved in modern times, and look at the central concerns that have guided its development. First, we look into the so-called classical management theories that emerged around the turn of the twentieth century. These include scientific management, which focuses on matching people and tasks to maximize efficiency and administrative management, which focuses on identifying the principles that willing lead to the creation of the most efficient system of organization and management.Next, we consider conductal management theories, developed some(prenominal) before and after the Second World contend, which focus on how managers should lead and control their workforces to increase transactance. Then we discuss management science theory, which developed during the Second World War and which has acquire progressively important as researchers have developed rigorous analytical and quantitative techni ques to attend managers measure and control organizational performance.Finally, we discuss business in the 1960s and 1970s and focus on the theories that were developed to avail explain how the impertinent environment affects the way organizations and managers operate. At the end of this paper, one will extrapolate the ways in which management theory has evolved over time. One will in any case understand how economic, political, and heathen forces have unnatural the development of these theories and the ways in which managers and their organizations carry on. Figure 1. 1 summarizes the chronology of the management theories that are discussed in this paper. Scientific Management openingThe evolution of modern management began in the closing decades of the ordinal century, after the industrial revolution had swept through Europe, Canada, and the United States. In the new economic climate, managers of all types of organizationspolitical, educational, and economicwere increas ingly trying to find better ways to satisfy customers needs. Many major economic, practiced, and cultural changes were taking place at this time. The introduction of steam power and the development of sophisticated automobilery and equipment changed the way in which goods were produced, special(a)ly in the weaving and clothing industries.Small workshops run by dexterous workers who produced hand-manufactured products (a system called crafts production) were existence replaced by large factories in which sophisticated machines controlled by hundreds or even thousands of unskilled or unskilled workers made products. Owners and managers of the new factories found themselves unprepared for the challenges accompanying the change from small-scale crafts production to large-scale outfit manufacturing.Many of the managers and supervisors had only a technical orientation, and were unprepared for the social problems that occur when people work unitedly in large groups (as in a factory or shop system). Managers began to search for new techniques to manage their organizations resources, and soon they began to focus on ways to increase the efficiency of the workertask mix. Job specialization and division of labor The famous economist Adam smith was one of the first to look at the effects of divers(prenominal) manufacturing systems. 7 He compared the relative performance of deuce disparate manufacturing methods.The first was quasi(prenominal) to crafts-style production, in which apiece worker was responsible for all of the 18 tasks relate in producing a pin. The other had each worker performing only 1 or a few of the 18 tasks that go into making a completed pin. Smith found that factories in which workers specialized in only 1 or a few tasks had greater performance than factories in which each worker performed all 18 pin-making tasks. In fact, Smith found that 10 workers specializing in a particular task could, between them, quarter 48 000 pins a day, wherea s those workers who performed all the tasks could make only a few thousand at most. Smith reasoned that this difference in performance was due to the fact that the workers who specialized became much more skilled at their specific tasks, and, as a group, were thus able to produce a product truehearted than the group of workers who each had to perform many tasks. Smith concluded that increasing the take of commerce specialization the process by which a division of labour occurs as different workers specialize in different tasks over timeincreases efficiency and leads to superior uper organizational performance.Based on Adam Smiths observations, early management practitioners and theorists focused on how managers should organize and control the work process to maximize the advantages of job specialization and the division of labour. F. W. Taylor and Scientific Management Frederick W. Taylor (18561915) is best kn sustain for defining the techniques of scientific management, the s ystematic study of relationships between people and tasks for the purpose of redesigning the work process to increase efficiency.Taylor believed that if the amount of time and effort that each worker expended to produce a unit of fruit (a finished good or service) could be cut d deliver by increasing specialization and the division of labour, then the production process would become more efficient. Taylor believed that the way to create the most efficient division of labour could best be determined by elbow style of scientific management techniques, earlier than intuitive or informal rule-of-thumb knowledge.This decision ultimately resulted in problems. For example, some managers using scientific management obtained increases in performance, but rather than sharing performance gains with workers through bonuses as Taylor had advocated, they simply increased the amount of work that each worker was previseed to do. Many workers experiencing the reorganized work system found tha t as their performance increased, managers required them to do more work for the same pay. Workers also learned that increases in performance practically meant fewer jobs and a greater threat of layoffs, because fewer workers were needed.In addition, the specialized, simplified jobs were often monotonous and repetitive, and many workers became dissatisfied with their jobs. Scientific management brought many workers more rigour than gain, and left them with a distrust of managers who did not seem to care about their well existence. These dissatisfied workers resisted attempts to use the new scientific management techniques and at times even withheld their job knowledge from managers to protect their jobs and pay. Unable to cheer up workers to accept the new scientific management techniques for performing tasks, some organizations increased the mechanization of the work process.For example, one reason for Henry pass overs introduction of moving transporter belts in his factory wa s the realization that when a conveyor belt controls the pace of work (instead of workers setting their birth pace), workers can be pushed to perform at high gearer levelslevels that they may have thought were beyond their reach. Charlie Chaplin captured this aspect of mass production in one of the opening scenes of his famous movie, Modern Times (1936). In the film, Chaplin caricatured a new factory employee trash to work at the machine imposed pace but losing the battle to the machine.Henry cut across also used the principles of scientific management to identify the tasks that each worker should perform on the production line and thus to determine the most effective way to create a division of labour to turn the needs of a mechanized production system. From a performance perspective, the combination of the 2 management practices (1) achieving the correct mix of workertask specialization and (2) linking people and tasks by the speed of the production linemakes sense. It pro duces the massive savings in cost and huge increases in return that occur in large, organized work settings.For example, in 1908, managers at the clicklin Motor Company redesigned the work process using scientific management principles, and the output of cars increased from 100 cars a month to 45 cars a day workers wages increased by only 90 percent, however. From other perspectives, though, scientific management practices sack many concerns. The definition of the workers rights not by the workers themselves but by the owners or managers as a result of the introduction of the new management practices raises an honest issue, which we examine in this Ethics in Action. crossingism in Practice From 1908 to 1914, through trial and error, Henry Fords talented team of production managers pioneered the development of the moving conveyor belt and thus changed manufacturing practices forever. Although the technical aspects of the move to mass production were a dramatic financial success for Ford and for the millions of Americans who could now contribute cars, for the workers who actually produced the cars, many human and social problems resulted. With simplification of the work process, workers grew to hate the monotony of the moving conveyor belt.By 1914, Fords car plants were experiencing huge employee turnoveroften reaching levels as high as 300 or 400 percent per year as workers left because they could not embrace the work-induced stress. 15 Henry Ford recognized these problems and made an announcement From that point on, to motivate his workforce, he would skip the length of the workday from nine hours to eight hours, and the company would double the basic wage from US$2. 50 to US$5. 00 per day. This was a dramatic increase, similar to an announcement today of an overnight doubling of the minimum wage.Ford became an internationally famous figure, and the word Fordism was coined for his new approach. Fords apparent generosity was matched, however, by an tea ring effort to control the resourcesboth human and materialwith which his empire was built. He employed hundreds of inspectors to check up on employees, both inside and outside his factories. In the factory, supervision was close and confining. Employees were not allowed to leave their places at the production line, and they were not permitted to talk to one another. Their job was to concentrate fully on the task at hand.Few employees could adapt to this system, and they developed ways of talking out of the sides of their mouths, like ventriloquists, and invented a form of linguistic process that became cognize as the Ford Lisp. Fords obsession with control brought him into greater and greater fight with managers, who were often fired when they disagreed with him. As a result, many talented people left Ford to total his growing rivals. Outside the workplace, Ford went so far as to establish what he called the Sociological surgical incision to check up on how his employees lived and the ways in which they spent their time.Inspectors from this department visited the homes of employees and presentigated their habits and problems. Employees who exhibited behaviours contrary to Fords standards (for instance, if they drank too much or were ever in debt) were likely to be fired. Clearly, Fords effort to control his employees led him and his managers to behave in ways that today would be considered unacceptable and unethical, and in the long run would impair an organizations ability to prosper.Despite the problems of worker turnover, absenteeism, and discontent at Ford Motor Company, managers of the other car companies watched Ford reap huge gains in efficiency from the application of the new management principles. They believed that their companies would have to imitate Ford if they were to survive. They hounded Taylor and used many of his followers as consultants to teach them how to see the techniques of scientific management. In addition, Taylor elaborate d his principles in several books, including Shop Management (1903) and The detail how to apply the principles of scientific management to reorganize the work system.Taylors work has had an enduring effect on the management of production systems. Managers in every organization, whether it produces goods or services, now carefully analyze the basic tasks that must be performed and try to devise the work systems that will allow their organizations to operate most efficiently. The Gilbreths Two prominent followers of Taylor were Frank Gilbreth (18681924) and Lillian Gilbreth (18781972), who refined Taylors analysis of work movements and made many contributions to time-and-motion study.Their aims were to (1) break up into each of its element actions and analyze every individual action necessary to perform a particular task, (2) find better ways to perform each component action, and (3) reorganize each of the component actions so that the action as a whole could be performed more effi cientlyat less cost of time and effort. The Gilbreths often filmed a worker performing a particular task and then separated the task actions, frame by frame, into their component movements.Their goal was to maximize the efficiency with which each individual task was performed so that gains across tasks would add up to enormous savings of time and effort. Their attempts to develop improved management principles were capturedat times quite humorouslyin the movie Cheaper by the Dozen, which depicts how the Gilbreths (with their 12 children) tried to live their own lives according to these efficiency principles and apply them to daily actions such as shaving, cooking, and even raising a family.Eventually, the Gilbreths became increasingly interested in the study of fatigue. They studied how the physical characteristics of the workplace contribute to job stress that often leads to fatigue and thus poor performance. They isolated factors such as lighting, heating, the colour of walls, and the design of tools and machinesthat result in worker fatigue. Their pioneering studies paved the way for new advances in management theory. In workshops and factories, the work of the Gilbreths, Taylor, and many others had a major effect on the practice of management.In comparison with the old crafts system, jobs in the new system were more repetitive, boring, and monotonous as a result of the application of scientific management principles, and workers became increasingly dissatisfied. Frequently, the management of work settings became a game between workers and managers Managers tried to initiate work practices to increase performance, and workers tried to hide the true potential efficiency of the work setting in prepare to protect their own well-being. administrative management theorySide by side with scientific managers studying the soulfulnesstask mix to increase efficiency, other researchers were focusing on administrative management, the study of how to create an organiz ational structure that leads to high efficiency and effectiveness. Organizational structure is the system of task and authority relationships that control how employees use resources to achieve the organizations goals. Two of the most influential views regarding the creation of efficient systems of organizational administration were developed in Europe.Max Weber, a German professor of sociology, developed one theory. Henri Fayol, the French manager who developed a model of management introduced earlier, developed the other. The Theory of Bureaucracy Max Weber (18641920) wrote at the turn of the twentieth century, when Germany was undergoing its industrial revolution. To help Germany manage its growing industrial enterprises at a time when it was striving to become a world power, Weber developed the principles of bureaucracya formal system of organization and administration designed to ensure efficiency and effectiveness.A bureaucratic system of administration is based on quintuplet principles (summarized in Figure 1. 2). Principle 1 In a bureaucracy, a managers formal authority derives from the position he or she holds in the organization. Authority is the power to hold people responsible for their actions and to make decisions concerning the use of organizational resources. Authority gives managers the right to direct and control their subordinates behaviour to achieve organizational goals.In a bureaucratic system of administration, obedience is owed to a manager, not because of any personal qualities that he or she might possess such as personality, wealth, or social statusbut because the manager occupies a position that is associated with a legitimate level of authority and responsibility. Principle 2 In a bureaucracy, people should occupy positions because of their performance, not because of their social standing or personal contacts. This principle was not always followed in Webers time and is often ignored today.Some organizations and industries ar e still affected by social networks in which personal contacts and relations, not job-related skills, do work hiring and promotional decisions. Principle 3 The finish of each positions formal authority and task responsibilities, and its relationship to other positions in an organization, should be clearly specified. When the tasks and authority associated with various(a) positions in the organization are clearly specified, managers and workers know what is expected of them and what to expect from each other.Moreover, an organization can hold all its employees strictly accountable for their actions when each person is totally familiar with his or her responsibilities. Principle 4 So that authority can be exercised effectively in an organization, positions should be arranged hierarchically, so employees know whom to report to and who reports to them. Managers must create an organizational hierarchy of authority that makes it clear who reports to whom and to whom managers and wor kers should go if conflicts or problems arise.This principle is especially important in the armed forces, CSIS, RCMP, and other organizations that deal with sensitive issues involving possible major repercussions. It is vital that managers at high levels of the hierarchy be able to hold subordinates accountable for their actions. Principle 5 Managers must create a unclouded system of rules, standard operate procedures, and norms so that they can effectively control behaviour within an organization. Rules are formal written instructions that specify actions to be taken under different circumstances to achieve specific goals (for example, if A happens, do B).Standard operating procedures (SOPs) are specific sets of written instructions about how to perform a certain aspect of a task. A rule might state that at the end of the workday employees are to leave their machines in good mark, and a set of SOPs then specifies exactly how they should do so, itemizing which machine parts mus t be oiled or replaced. Norms are unwritten, informal codes of conduct that prescribe how people should act in particular situations. For example, an organizational norm in a restaurant might be that waiters should help each other if time permits.Rules, SOPs, and norms provide behavioural guidelines that improve the performance of a bureaucratic system because they specify the best ways to accomplish organizational tasks. Companies such as McDonalds and Wal-Mart have developed extensive rules and procedures to specify the types of behaviours that are required of their employees, such as, Always greet the customer with a smile. Weber believed that organizations that implement all five principles will establish a bureaucratic system that will improve organizational performance.The specification of positions and the use of rules and SOPs to regulate how tasks are performed make it easier for managers to organize and control the work of subordinates. Similarly, fair and equitable selec tion and promotion systems improve managers feelings of security, reduce stress, and encourage organizational members to act ethically and further promote the interests of the organization. If bureaucracies are not managed well, however, many problems can result.Sometimes, managers allow rules and SOPsbureaucratic red tapeto become so cumbersome that decision making becomes slow and inefficient and organizations are unable to change. When managers rely too much on rules to solve problems and not enough on their own skills and judgment, their behaviour becomes inflexible. A key challenge for managers is to use bureaucratic principles to benefit, rather than harm, an organization. Fayols Principles of Management workings at the same time as Weber but independently of him, Henri Fayol (18411925), the CEO of Comambault Mining, identified 14 principles (summarized in Table 2. ) that he believed to be essential to increasing the efficiency of the management process. Some of the principle s that Fayol defined have faded from contemporary management practices, but most have endured. The principles that Fayol and Weber set forward still provide a clear and appropriate set of guidelines that managers can use to create a work setting that makes efficient and effective use of organizational resources. These principles remain the bedrock of modern management theory recent researchers have refined or developed them to case modern conditions.For example, Webers and Fayols concerns for equity and for establishing appropriate links between performance and reward are central themes in contemporary theories of motivation and leadership. Behavioural Management Theory The behavioural management theorists writing in the first half of the twentieth century all espoused a theme that focused on how managers should personally behave in order to motivate employees and encourage them to perform at high levels and be committed to the achievement of organizational goals.The Management I nsight indicates how employees can become demoralized when managers do not treat their employees properly. Management Insight How to Discourage Employees Catherine Robertson, owner of Vancouver-based Robertson Telecom Inc. , made headlines in February 2001 for her management policies. Robertson is a government avower whose company operates Enquiry BC, which gives British Columbians toll-free telephone information and referral services about all provincial government programs.Female telephone operators at Robertson Telecom must wear skirts or dresses even though they never come in contact with the public. Not even dress pants are allowed. As Gillian Savage, a designer employee, notes, This isnt a suggested thing, its an order No pants. Brad Roy, another former employee, claims a female Indo-Canadian employee was sent home to change when she arrived at work wearing a Punjabi suit (a long shirt over pants). The no-pants rule is not the only concern of current and former employees. Roy also said, I saw some people being reprimanded for going to the washroom. While Robertson denied Roys allegation regarding washrooms, she did defend that company policy included the no-pants rule, that employees were not allowed to bring their purses or other personal items to their desks, and that they were not allowed to deglutition coffee or bottled water at their desks. The company does not provide garbage cans for the employees. A group of current and former employees recently expressed concern with the number of rules Robertson has in place, and claimed that the rules have led to high turnover and poor morale.A current employee claims that many workers do not care whether they give out the right government phone numbers. Robertson said that she knew of no employees who were discontent, and was shocked that the policies had caused distress among employees. She defended the dress code as appropriate business attire. Robertson may have to make some adjustments in her manag ement style. The cabinet minister responsible for Enquiry BC, Catherine MacGregor, ordered an investigation of the contractor after being contacted by The Vancouver Sun about the allegations.She noted that the skirts-only rule for women is not appropriate, and that, All of our contractors are expected to fully comply with the Employment Standards Act, Workers recompense rules and human rights legislation. Additionally, Mary-Woo Sims, head of the BC military man Rights Commission, said dress codes cant be based on gender. Thus, an employer cant severalize men they must wear pants (as Robertson does), but tell women they cant. On the face of it, it would appear to be gender discriminatory, Sims said. The Work of Mary Parker Follett If F. W.Taylor is considered to be the beat of management thought, Mary Parker Follett (18681933) serves as its mother. 28 Much of her writing about management and about the way managers should behave toward workers was a response to her concern that Ta ylor was ignoring the human side of the organization. She pointed out that management often overlooks the wad of ways in which employees can contribute to the organization when managers allow them to participate and exercise initiative in their everyday work lives. Taylor, for example, relied on time-and-motion experts to analyze workers jobs for them.Follett, in contrast, argued that because workers know the most about their jobs, they should be involved in job analysis and managers should allow them to participate in the work development process. Follett proposed that, Authority should go with knowledge whether it is up the line or down. In other words, if workers have the relevant knowledge, then workers, rather than managers, should be in control of the work process itself, and managers should behave as coaches and facilitatorsnot as reminders and supervisors. In making this statement, Follett anticipated the current interest in self-managed teams and empowerment.She also re cognized the splendour of having managers in different departments communicate directly with each other to speed decision making. She advocated what she called cross-functioning members of different departments working together in cross-departmental teams to accomplish projectsan approach that is increasingly utilized today. Fayol also mentioned expertise and knowledge as important sources of managers authority, but Follett went further. She proposed that knowledge and expertise, and not managers formal authority deriving from their position in the hierarchy, should decide who would lead at any particular moment.She believed, as do many management theorists today, that power is fluid and should flow to the person who can best help the organization achieve its goals. Follett took a horizontal view of power and authority, in contrast to Fayol, who saw the formal line of authority and vertical chain of command as being most essential to effective management. Folletts behavioural appro ach to management was very radical for its time. The Hawthorne Studies and Human Relations Probably because of its radical nature, Folletts work was unappreciated by managers and researchers until quite recently.Instead, researchers continued to follow in the footsteps of Taylor and the Gilbreths. One focus was on how efficiency might be increased through astir(p) various characteristics of the work setting, such as job specialization or the kinds of tools workers used. One series of studies was conducted from 1924 to 1932 at the Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company. This research, now known as the Hawthorne studies, began as an attempt to investigate how characteristics of the work settingspecifically the level of lighting or illuminationaffect worker fatigue and performance.The researchers conducted an examine in which they systematically measured worker productivity at various levels of illumination. The experiment produced some unlooked-for results. The researchers found that regardless of whether they raised or lowered the level of illumination, productivity increased. In fact, productivity began to settle only when the level of illumination dropped to the level of moonlight, a level at which presumably workers could no long-dated see well enough to do their work efficiently. The researchers found these results puzzling and invited a noted Harvard psychologist, Elton Mayo, to help them.Subsequently, it was found that many other factors also influence worker behaviour, and it was not clear what was actually influencing the Hawthorne workers behaviour. However, this particular effect which became known as the Hawthorne effectseemed to suggest that workers attitudes toward their managers affect the level of workers performance. In particular, the significant conclusion was that a managers behaviour or leadership approach can affect performance. This conclusion led many researchers to turn their attention to managerial behaviour and leadersh ip.If supervisors could be trained to behave in ways that would elicit cooperative behaviour from their subordinates, then productivity could be increased. From this view emerged the human relations movement, which advocates that supervisors be behaviourally trained to manage subordinates in ways that elicit their cooperation and increase their productivity. The importance of behavioural or human relations training became even clearer to its supporters after another series of experimentsthe bank wiring room experiments.In a study of workers making telephone switching equipment, researchers Elton Mayo and F. J. Roethlisberger discovered that the workers, as a group, had deliberately adopted a norm of output restriction to protect their jobs. Workers who violated this informal production norm were subjected to sanctions by other group members. Those who violated group performance norms and performed above the norm were called ratebusters those who performed on a lower floor the norm w ere called chiselers. The experimenters concluded that both types of workers threatened the group as a whole. Ratebusters threatened group members because they revealed to managers how fast the work could be done. Chiselers were looked down on because they were not doing their share of the work. Work-group members disciplined both ratebusters and chiselers in order to create a pace of work that the workers (not the managers) thought was fair. Thus, a work groups influence over output can be as great as the supervisors influence.Since the work group can influence the behavior of its members, some management theorists argue that supervisors should be trained to behave in ways that gain the goodwill and cooperation of workers so that supervisors, not workers, control the level of work-group performance. One of the main implications of the Hawthorne studies was that the behavior of managers and workers in the work setting is as important in explaining the level of performance as the tec hnical aspects of the task.Managers must understand the workings of the informal organization, the system of behavioural rules and norms that emerge in a group, when they try to manage or change behaviour in organizations. Many studies have found that, as time passes, groups often develop elaborate procedures and norms that bond members together, allowing unified action either to cooperate with management in order to raise performance or to restrict output and thwart the attainment of organizational goals. The Hawthorne studies demonstrated the importance of understanding how the feelings, thoughts, and behaviour of work-group members and managers affect performance.It was becoming increasingly clear to researchers that understanding behaviour in organizations is a complex process that is critical to increasing performance. Indeed, the increasing interest in the area of management known as organizational behaviour, the study of the factors that have an impact on how individuals and groups respond to and act in organizations, dates from these early studies. Theory X and Theory Y Several studies after the Second World War revealed how assumptions about workers attitudes and behaviour affect managers behaviour. Perhaps the most influential approach was developed by Douglas McGregor.He proposed that two different sets of assumptions about work attitudes and behaviours dominate the way managers think and affect how they behave in organizations. McGregor named these two contrasting sets of assumptions Theory X and Theory Y (see Figure 1. 3). THEORY X According to the assumptions of Theory X, the average worker is lazy, dislikes work, and will try to do as pocket-sized as possible. Moreover, workers have little ambition and wish to avoid responsibility. Thus, the managers task is to counteract workers natural tendencies to avoid work.To take note workers performance at a high level, the manager must supervise them close and control their behaviour by means of the c arrot and stickrewards and punishments. Managers who accept the assumptions of Theory X design and shape the work setting to maximize their control over workers behaviours and minimize workers control over the pace of work. These managers believe that workers must be made to do what is necessary for the success of the organization, and they focus on developing rules, SOPs, and a well-defined system of rewards and punishments to control behaviour.They see little point in giving workers autonomy to solve their own problems because they think that the workforce neither expects nor desires cooperation. Theory X managers see their social occasion as to closely monitor workers to ensure that they contribute to the production process and do not threaten product quality. Henry Ford, who closely supervised and managed his workforce, fits McGregors description of a manager who holds Theory X assumptions. THEORY Y In contrast, Theory Y assumes that workers are not inherently lazy, do not natu rally dislike work, and, if abandoned the opportunity, will do what is good for the organization.According to Theory Y, the characteristics of the work setting determine whether workers consider work to be a source of satisfaction or punishment and managers do not need to control workers behaviour closely in order to make them perform at a high level, because workers will exercise selfcontrol when they are committed to organizational goals. The implication of Theory Y, according to McGregor, is that the limits of collaboration in the organizational setting are not limits of human nature but of managements ingenuity in discovering how to realize the potential represented by its human resources. It is the managers task to create a work setting that encourages commitment to organizational goals and provides opportunities for workers to be imaginative and to exercise initiative and self-direction. When managers design the organizational setting to reflect the assumptions about attitude s and behaviour suggested by Theory Y, the characteristics of the organization are quite different from those of an organizational setting based on Theory X.Managers who believe that workers are motivated to help the organization reach its goals can decentralize authority and give more control over the job to workers, both as individuals and in groups. In this setting, individuals and groups are still accountable for their activities, but the managers role is not to control employees but to provide support and advice, to make sure employees have the resources they need to perform their jobs, and to evaluate them on their ability to help the organization meet its goals.Henri Fayols approach to administration more closely reflects the assumptions of Theory Y, rather than Theory X. Management Science Theory This theory focuses on the use of rigorous quantitative techniques to help managers make maximum use of organizational resources to produce goods and services. In essence, managemen t science theory is a contemporary extension of scientific management, which, as developed by Taylor, also took a quantitative approach to measuring the workertask mix in order to raise efficiency. There are many branches of management science each of them deals with a specific set of concerns vicenary management utilizes mathematical techniquessuch as linear and nonlinear programming, modelling, simulation, queuing theory, and chaos theoryto help managers decide, for example, how much inventory to hold at different times of the year, where to locate a new factory, and how best to invest an organizations financial capital.Resources in the organizational environment include the nude materials and skilled people that an organization requires to produce goods and services, as well as the support of groups including customers who buy these goods and services and provide the organization with financial resources. One way of determining the relative success of an organization is to cons ider how effective its managers are at obtaining scarce and valuable resources. The importance of studying the environment became clear after the development of open-systems theory and contingency theory during the 1960s.The Open-Systems View One of the most influential views of how an organization is affected by its remote environment was developed by Daniel Katz, Robert Kahn, and James Thompson in the 1960s. 38 These theorists viewed the organization as an open system a system that takes in resources from its external environment and converts or transforms them into goods and services that are then sent back to that environment, where they are bought by customers (see Figure 1. 4).At the input stage, an organization acquires resources such as raw materials, money, and skilled workers to produce goods and services. Once the organization has gathered the necessary resources, conversion begins. At the conversion stage, the organizations workforce, using appropriate tools, techniques , and machinery, transforms the inputs into outputs of finished goods and services such as cars, hamburgers, or flights to Hawaii. At the output stage, the organization releases finished goods and services to its external environment, where customers purchase and use them to satisfy their needs.The money the organization obtains from the gross revenue of its outputs allows the organization to acquire more resources so that the cycle can begin again. The system just depict is said to be open because the organization draws from and interacts with the external environment in order to survive in other words, the organization is open to its environment. A closed system, in contrast, is a self-contained system that is not affected by changes that occur in its external environment. Organizations that operate as closed ystems, that ignore the external environment and that fail to acquire inputs, are likely to experience entropy, the tendency of a system to lose its ability to control itsel f and thus to dissolve and disintegrate. Management theorists can model the activities of most organizations by using the open-systems view. Manufacturing companies like Ford and General Electric, for example, buy inputs such as component parts, skilled and semiskilled labour, and robots and computer-controlled manufacturing equipment then, at the conversion stage, they use their manufacturing skills to assemble inputs into outputs of cars and computers.As we discuss in later chapters, competition between organizations for resources is one of several major challenges to managing the organizational environment. Researchers using the open-systems view are also interested in how the various parts of a system work together to promote efficiency and effectiveness. Systems theorists like to argue that the parts are more than the sum of the whole they mean that an organization performs at a higher level when its departments work together rather than separately.Synergy, the performance gain s that result when individuals and departments coordinate their actions, is possible only in an organized system. The recent interest in using teams comprising people from different departments reflects systems theorists interest in designing organizational systems to create synergy and thus increase efficiency and effectiveness.